ABSTRACT
«PEDOLOGY AND ITS IMPACT ON DOMESTIC
EDUCATION"
Performed:
I.A. Smolyakova
Introduction…………………………………………………………………………...3
1 Fundamentals of pedology……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
1.1 What is pedology………………………………………………………5
1.2 Basic concepts of pedology……………………………………………6
1.3 The birth of pedology as a science……………………………………..7
2 The first pedological research in Russia…………………………….11
2.1 The emergence and development of pedology in Russia…………………………11
2.2 The influence of pedology on domestic education………………..14
3 Pedology and its significance for pedagogy of the 20th century…………………………...18
3.1 Stages of development of science…………………………………………………..18
4 Reasons and consequences of the prohibition of pedology from Russia………………………22
4.1 Strength and weakness of pedology…………………………………………...22
4.2 Prerequisites for the prohibition of pedology…………………………………….24
4.3 Consequences of the defeat of pedology……………………………………24
4.4 Legacy of pedology. Pedology today…………………………...26
Conclusion………………………………………………………………………….29
References………………………………………………………………31
Introduction
In the 21st century, the problem of educating the younger generation under the negative influence of environmental factors on the child, such as:
environmental factors. More and more children are born with congenital ailments, chronic diseases, especially in large cities and in the zone of radiation contamination.
criminal factors. The growth of crime in cities and criminal arbitrariness, kidnapping, etc.
psychological. The rhythm of life in the metropolis, the need to start an independent life early, the variety of television programs with various content, the Internet, etc.
All this requires from the teacher a modern approach to the upbringing and education of the younger generation.
Modern pedagogical educational institutions train specialists who are competent in many areas related to the health, development, and psychology of the child. It is generally recognized that this knowledge is necessary for solving various problems of upbringing and education. More and more new methods of studying the child's psyche, the characteristics of childhood are being created. The developers of modern educational programs largely rely on the research of specialists in various fields.
As a future teacher, I also became interested in the search for a rational and effective system of education that takes into account the age and individual characteristics of the child, as well as based on the material of sciences related to pedagogy and not only. However, in my research, I turned to the past. The subject of the science of pedology seemed to me extremely interesting for knowledge and application, despite a number of visible shortcomings. The purpose of my work is to try to answer a number of questions:
What did pedology give to world pedagogy and psychology?
What sciences today are based on the experience of pedology?
Are the studies of pedologists used in modern pedagogy?
Tasks:
1 trace the path of the emergence of pedologists, the prerequisites for the emergence of science;
2 to get acquainted with the basic concepts of pedology;
3 to study the influence of pedology on domestic education;
4 to understand the reasons for the defeat of pedology and its further oblivion.
1Fundamentals of pedology
What is pedology
Pedology (from the Greek pais - child and logos - word, science) is a direction in psychology and pedagogy that arose at the end of the 19th century. under the influence of evolutionary ideas, associated primarily with the name of S. Hall, who in 1889 created the first pedological laboratory. In pedology, the child was considered comprehensively, in all its manifestations, in constant development and in various, including social, conditions, and the goal was to help develop all its potentialities.
This is the science of children, the doctrine of the development of the child, which attaches decisive importance to biological, physiological and psychological characteristics in the formation of his character and abilities.
Among all the variety of definitions of its subject, the definition of it as the science of the integral development of the child seems to be the most meaningful. In this definition, according to L. S. Vygotsky, two essential features of pedology as an independent scientific discipline are singled out - integrity and development (understood as a single process). These signs, in essence, are distinguished as leading by many prominent psychologists and educators of the 20-30s, including P.P. Blonsky, N.K. Krupskaya, although in their specific content they differ from each other. The concept of integrity is central here. L.S. Vygotsky understood a holistic approach to the study of a child as a special orientation towards revealing those new qualities and specific features that arise from the combination of individual aspects of his development - social, psychological and physiological - into a holistic process. “The study of these new qualities and the new patterns corresponding to them, which are presented in the synthesis of individual aspects and processes of development, it seems to me, is the first sign of pedology as a whole and of each individual pedological research.”
To reveal such regularities and qualities, not reducible to one of the aspects of a child's development, actually meant to substantiate the right to exist in pedology as an independent scientific discipline. The solution of this problem in relation to the 20-30s. in many ways turned out to be impossible, due to which doubts arose about the objective existence of the very subject of pedology, which later ended with its complete denial as a science. In fact, in the first half of the 30s. pedology "takes the form of a kind of pedagogical anthropology, carrying out a synthesis, largely mechanical, of scientific data about the child from the point of view of their pedagogical applications." The upbringing and education of students are revealed from the positions of a multi-level organization of human development, which involves the consideration of social, psychological and biological properties in unity. Indicative in this regard for the 30s. is "Pedology" P.P. Blonsky, published in 1934.
Basic concepts of pedology
Development. The basic concept of pedology, the only correct one is the dialectical concept of development.
Growth: A child is qualitatively different from an adult. Growth is not only a quantitative addition of matter: quantity turns into quality.
Constitution and character: growth causes a number of qualitative changes in a growing organism. The totality of qualitative peculiarities of an organism forms its constitution. The constitution is usually called the physique of the body.
Wednesday. “If we consider all human behavior as its relationship with the environment, we can assume in advance that in this correlative activity there can be three main typical moments. The first is the moment of relative equilibrium created between the organism and the environment.
Children's divisions. Blonsky divides all school childhood into 3 stages: early prepubertal childhood (7-10 years old); late prepubertal childhood (10-12; 13 years); age of puberty (13-16 years).
Transitional ages. The so-called "Critical ages" - birth, 3 years, 7 years, puberty. They are characterized by extreme impressionability, nervousness, imbalance, unmotivated strange actions, etc.
Pedological and chronological age. Problems of acceleration, inhibition of development, physical and mental. Each of the age stages has its own peculiarity, but not every child experiences this stage at the same time.
1.3 The birth of pedology as a science
In the era of feudalism, pedagogy was guided by the principle:
"Break the will of the child so that his soul can live." A more or less systematic study of the child began only in the era of industrial capitalism.
Industrial capitalism, drawing more and more masses of the population into production as hired labor, demanded from them a certain level of education. In this regard, the question of universal education arose. What was needed was a method of teaching that would work successfully in inexperienced hands. In an effort to make teaching more accessible and understandable, Pestalozzi tried to build it on the laws of psychology. Herbart continued the "psychologization of learning", he introduced psychology into all the main departments of pedagogy. At the time when practical psychology was being created, namely in the middle of the 19th century, general psychology was being strongly restructured, in the era of machine production and the development of technology, it became experimental. Educational psychology also transformed into experimental educational psychology or experimental pedagogy. So the German psychologist and educator MEYMANN in his “lectures on introduction to experimental pedagogy and its psychological foundations” sets out the age-related psychological characteristics of children, their individual characteristics, the technique and economics of memorization and the application of psychology to teaching literacy, counting and drawing. E. Meiman was one of the pioneers of developmental psychology in Germany. He founded a psychological laboratory at the University of Hamburg, which conducted research on the mental development of children. Meiman is also the founder of the first special journal devoted to pedagogical problems, the Journal of Educational Psychology. In his various activities, he paid the main attention to the applied aspect of child psychology and pedology, since he believed that the main task of pedology is to develop methodological foundations for teaching children. In his theoretical approaches, Maiman sought to combine Selley's associationist approach with Hall's theory of recapitulation. Maiman believed that child psychology should not only study the stages and age characteristics of mental development, but also explore individual developmental options, for example, issues of child giftedness and backwardness. Inborn tendencies of children. At the same time, education and upbringing should be based both on knowledge of general patterns and on an understanding of the characteristics of the psyche of this particular child.
However, pedagogy has a number of very important problems that cannot be solved by the means of pedagogical psychology (the goals of education, the content of educational material), therefore pedagogical psychology cannot replace pedagogy. Maiman believed that such a general picture of a child's life should be given by a special science - the science of young age (Jugendlehre), and for this, in addition to psychological data about the child, familiarity with the physical life of the child, knowledge of the dependence of the life of a growing person on external conditions, knowledge of the conditions education. So the development of educational psychology and experimental pedagogy leads to the recognition of the need to create a special science - the science of young age.
Relatively early, at the end of the 19th century, in the circles of the American psychologist, STANLEY HALL began to realize the impossibility of studying the mental development of the child separately from his physical development. As a result, it was proposed to create a new science - PEDOLOGY, which would give a more complete picture of the age development of the child. The American psychologist Hall is the founder of pedology, a complex science of the child, which is based on the idea of pedocentrism, that is, the idea that the child is the center of research interests of many professionals - psychologists, educators, biologists, pediatricians, anthropologists, sociologists and other specialists. Of all these areas, pedology includes the part that has to do with children. Thus, this science, as it were, unites all branches of knowledge related to the study of child development.
The idea of the need to study child development was established with the penetration of evolutionary ideas into psychology. The application of these ideas to the study of the psyche meant the recognition of its genesis, development, and also its connection with the process of adaptation of the organism to the environment. One of the first to review the subject and tasks of psychology from this point of view was the English psychologist G. Spencer. However, he was mainly interested in the methodological and general theoretical problems of mental development. Hall, first of all, drew attention to the importance of studying the development of the child's psyche, the study of which can be a genetic method for general psychology.
Hall associated the importance of studying child psychology with his theory of recapitulation. The basis of this theory is Haeckel's biogenetic law, applied by Hall to explain child development.
Naturally, such a rigid and straightforward transfer of biological laws to pedagogy could not but be criticized, and many provisions of Hall's pedological concept were revised quite soon. However, the very science of pedology, created by him, very quickly gained popularity all over the world and existed almost until the middle of the 20th century. Popularity was brought to Hall and the methods he developed for studying children, primarily the questionnaires and questionnaires he published for adolescents, teachers and parents, which also made it possible to compile a comprehensive description of the child, analyze their problems not only from the point of view of adults, but also the children themselves.
Thus, S. Hall expressed the idea of creating an experimental child psychology that was in the air, combining the requirements of pedagogical practice with the achievements of biology and psychology that were timely for him.
The first pedological research in Russia
2.1 The emergence and development of pedology in Russia
Feudal Russia, with its Domostroy pedagogy, was as little interested in the psychology of the child as the feudal West. As well as there, the origin and development of educational psychology in Russia is associated with the democratic movement:
The first to look at the matter of education from a philosophical point of view was N.I. Pirogov. The principle of education put forward by him in a person, first of all a Human, caused the need to pose and discuss many theoretical problems. He took pedagogy to a new level. It was a requirement of sound pedagogy based on psychology. Having shown that a person is a person, and not a means to achieve other goals, Pirogov raised the question of the need for a comprehensive, primarily psychological study of a person, knowledge of the patterns of his development, identification of the conditions and factors that determine the formation of the mental sphere of a child. With this approach, psychology came to the fore, became the necessary basis for solving pedagogical problems. He considered the task of studying the patterns of child development to be paramount and urgent. Noting the originality of childhood in general, Pirogov recognized the need to take into account the individual differences of children, without this it is impossible to influence the formation of the moral world of the individual, to develop the best human traits.
A new understanding of the tasks of upbringing inevitably entailed a new approach to interpreting the essence of upbringing, a new look at the factors of upbringing and the means of pedagogical influence.
A huge contribution to the development of these problems was made by K.D. Ushinsky. He gave his interpretation of the most complex and always topical questions about the psychological nature of education, about its limits and possibilities, about the relationship between education and development, about the combination of external educational influences and the process of self-education. According to Ushinsky, the subject of education is a person. “The art of education is based on the data of anthropological sciences, on complex knowledge about a person who lives in a family, in society, among the people, among humanity and alone with his conscience.” Ushinsky based his theory of education on two main concepts - "organism" and "development". From this he deduced the need for a harmonious combination of mental, moral and physical education. The works of these outstanding teachers of the 19th century helped to look at the problem of education in a new light, to recognize the importance of psychology for education, to pave the way for the further development of educational psychology in Russia.
Passion for experimental pedagogy flares up in the era of 1905. An attempt to create experimental pedagogy and a special science, pedology, instead of pedagogical psychology, found a response in Russia. Rumyantsev was a particularly ardent propagandist of pedology in pre-revolutionary times.
For the early period of Soviet pedology, the names of the then largest pedological universities and departments are already characteristic: medical-pedological institute, pedologist - defectological department. This influence of doctors on the emerging Soviet pedology was mainly useful: it became easier and easier to connect the doctrine of the growth and physical development of the child with his psychology. It became easier and easier for pedology to take shape as a special independent science, moreover, a materialistic one. Works are beginning to appear that claim to give a general concept of childhood. Of these works, we can note: “Preschool age” by Arkin, “Pedology” by Blonsko, “Reflexology of childhood” by Aryamov.
Relying on natural science, young Soviet pedology waged an energetic struggle against idealism and took the path of materialism more and more resolutely. But the natural-scientific materialism with which pedology was then imbued was not yet dialectical, but mechanistic materialism. He considered the child as a kind of machine, whose activity is entirely determined by the influence of external stimuli. This mechanistic concept manifested itself especially clearly in the works of pedologists who gravitated towards reflexology. Thus, the problem of studying the laws of child development eludes mechanists in pedology.
If in the first years of its existence, Soviet pedology was influenced by natural science and medicine, then in the subsequent time it was decisively influenced by pedagogy. Pedology became more and more decisively a pedagogical science, and the pedologist began to enter children's institutions as a practical worker. Pedology was becoming more and more a social science, biologism was subjected to intense criticism, and the enormous role of the influence of the surrounding social environment and, in particular, education was recognized. Scientific and pedagogical production also grew (the works of Molozhavy, Blonsky, Basov, Vygotsky, Shchelovanov, Aryamov, Arkin).
Pedology turned its face to pedagogy. However, such a strong influence of pedagogy on pedology sometimes developed into the identification of these sciences, hence such incorrect definitions as “pedology is a part of pedagogy” or “pedology is the theory of the pedagogical process” came from. The problems of pedagogy and pedology are not identical (for pedagogy - how a teacher should teach, for pedology - how a child learns).
The problem of growth is one of the most basic pedological problems. Certainly. It uses the achievements of psychology, but it also uses data from various other sciences.
The problem of development is a philosophical problem. Not only should pedology not be alien to philosophy, but it is precisely philosophy that forms the basis of pedology.
The study of child development is not limited to the present, without knowing the history of mankind, it is impossible to understand the history of child development. Thus, history is one of the most basic sciences for pedology.
Knowledge of the activity of the nervous system is necessary for pedology. In general, it needs knowledge of the characteristics of the child's organism: pedology uses a great deal of biological material in the study of the development of the child.
Pedology is the science of the age development of a child in a certain socio-historical environment.
Representatives of science in the early twentieth century. are Rumyantsev, Nechaev, Rossolimo, Lazursky, Kashchenko. Later, pedological ideas were developed by Abramov, Basov, Bekhterev, Blonsky, Vygotsky, Zalkind, Molozhavy, Fortunatov and others.
2.2 The influence of pedology on domestic education
A distinctive feature of the Soviet period in the history of culture and pedagogy is the enormous role played by the party and the state in its development. The state took over the financing of all branches of culture: education, logistics, all kinds of art, establishing the strictest censorship of literature, theater, cinema, educational institutions, etc. A coherent system of indoctrination of the population was created. The mass media, being under the most severe control of the party and the state, along with reliable information, used the method of manipulating the consciousness of the population. The idea was instilled in the people that the country was a besieged fortress, and only those who defended it had the right to be in this fortress. The constant search for enemies became a distinctive feature of the activities of the party and the state.
In line with the class struggle, bourgeois culture was constantly opposed to the new, proletarian culture. In contrast to bourgeois culture, the new, socialist culture, in the opinion of the Communists, must express the interests of the working people and serve the tasks of the class struggle of the proletariat for socialism. From these positions, the communists also determined their attitude to the cultural heritage of the past. Many values were excluded from the cultural process. The special storages contained the works of writers, artists and other representatives of culture that were not pleasing to the communists. Noble estates were destroyed, temples, churches and monasteries were destroyed, the connection of times was destroyed.
20-30s 20th century were the heyday of extracurricular activities. It was then that interesting pedagogical initiatives were introduced into life, original forms of organizing children's life appeared, the scientific and methodological base of extracurricular and out-of-school work was intensively developing, serious scientific research and observations were carried out on the development of children's amateur performances, creative abilities of the individual, his interests and needs. Collective and group forms of work were studied. Among the most famous teachers who have made a huge contribution to the formation and development of out-of-school education in our country, we will name E.N. Medynsky, P.P. Blonsky, S.T. Shatsky and V.P. Shatskaya, A.S. Makarenko, V.N. Tersky. It should also be noted that N.K. Krupskaya and A.V. Lunacharsky "not only enriched pedagogy with their work on this problem, but also helped to solve it at the state level, influencing the education policy of the USSR."
School and out-of-school areas of education began to receive a certain design and concretization. Moreover, out-of-school education then played an even more prominent role, since it was in the practice of out-of-school work that ideas were born related to the upbringing of children in new socio-cultural conditions.
In 1918, the first out-of-school institution was opened - the Biological Station for Young Nature Lovers under the guidance of a talented teacher and scientist B.V. Vsesvyatsky. Soon the number of various extracurricular institutions increased dramatically.
In the mid 30s. children's sports schools and stadiums were created. Later there were motorways for children, clubs for young sailors with their own fleets and shipping companies. The country entered a period of rapid industrialization, and the development of children's technical creativity became one of the main tasks of out-of-school education in the 1930s. Particular attention was paid to the development of a network of various technical stations for children in connection with the need to train a large number of qualified specialists for all branches of the national economy, technically competent workers for new buildings.
In 1925, the Artek All-Union Pioneer Camp was opened. Later, especially in the post-war years, pioneer camps were massively developed. They solved the problems not only of improving the health of children, but also of socio-political and labor education.
Attention was also paid to the development of the general culture of the younger generation, the formation of the artistic interests of children of different ages. For this purpose, such important cultural and educational institutions as children's libraries, theaters, cinemas, and galleries were created. Music, art, choreographic schools appeared, thanks to which conditions were created for the education of young talents.
The increase in the number and variety of out-of-school institutions is a clear sign of the prewar years. At that time, teachers began to theoretically comprehend the accumulated experience, which helped to determine the basic principles of extracurricular work: the mass character and general accessibility of classes based on the voluntary association of children according to their interests; development of their initiative and initiative; socially useful orientation of activity; a variety of forms of extracurricular work; taking into account the age and individual characteristics of children.
Distinctive features of the club (out-of-school) work of A.S. Makarenko, as well as S.T. Shatsky, considered, first of all, creativity and self-organization. Makarenko considered it necessary to make the leisure and recreation of the Communards meaningful and interesting. The work of the circle, emphasized A.S. Makarenko, should have a real socially useful orientation, be built on the basis of self-organization. The lever of the entire club system of the Communards was the principle of acquiring a variety of knowledge and skills that they could use in socially useful activities.
All club work of A.S. Makarenko and S.T. Shatsky was built on the basis of children's self-government Makarenko emphasized that it is necessary to involve all the pupils without exception, including the younger ones, in the performance of various organizational functions.
The conclusions of these teachers destroyed the prevailing idea of the child only as an object of pedagogical influence. They showed that a child in an out-of-school institution is an active subject of the educational process. This position, and its scientific and methodological justification, was very bold for that time.
The aspiration of youth leaders for centralized management of amateur movements subordinated the youth movement and the technical creativity of the children to the pioneer organization. And then the pioneer organization itself was included in the system of school activities. Out-of-school institutions for the most part began to be called pioneer houses, which, of course, influenced the content and organization of work in them.
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Science) is a trend in psychology and pedagogy that arose at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries, due to the penetration of evolutionary ideas into pedagogy and psychology, the development of applied branches of psychology and experimental pedagogy.
Amer. psychologist S. Hall, who created in 1889. 1st pedological laboratory; the term itself was coined by his student - O. Crisment. But back in 1867. K.D. Ushinsky in his work “Man as an Object of Education” anticipated the emergence of pedology: “If pedagogy wants to educate a person in all respects, then it must first recognize him in all respects.” In the West, P. was engaged in S. Hall, J. Baldwin, E. Meiman, V. Preyer, and others. Pedology was a brilliant scientist and organizer A.P. Nechaev. A great contribution was made by V.M. Bekhterev, who organized in 1907. Pedological Institute in St. Petersburg. The first 15 post-revolutionary years were favorable: there was a normal scientific life with stormy discussions, in which approaches were developed and the growing pains inevitable for young science were overcome.
The subject of Pedology, despite numerous discussions and theoretical developments of its leaders (A.B. Zalkind, P.P. Blonsky, M.Ya. Basov, L.S. Vygotsky, S.S. Molozhaviy, etc.), is not clearly defined. was, and attempts to find the specifics of P., not reducible to the content of sciences adjacent to it, were not successful.
Pedology sought to study the child, while studying it comprehensively, in all its manifestations and taking into account all influencing factors. Blonsky defined pedology as the science of the age-related development of a child in a certain socio-historical environment. The fact that P. was still far from ideal is explained not by the fallacy of the approach, but by the enormous complexity of creating an interdisciplinary science. Of course, there was no absolute unity of views among pedologists. However, there are 4 main principles.
- The child is an integral system. It should not be studied only “in parts” (something by physiology, something by psychology, something by neurology).
- A child can be understood only by considering that he is in constant development. The genetic principle meant taking into account the dynamics and trends of development. An example is Vygotsky's understanding of a child's egocentric speech as a preparatory phase of an adult's inner speech.
- A child can be studied only taking into account his social environment, which affects not only the psyche, but often also the morphophysiological parameters of development. Pedologists worked a lot and quite successfully with difficult teenagers, which was especially important in those years of prolonged social upheavals.
- The science of the child should be not only theoretical, but also practical.
Pedologists worked in schools, kindergartens, various teenage associations. Psychological and pedological counseling was actively carried out; work was carried out with parents; developed the theory and practice of psychodiagnostics. In L. and M. there were in-you P., where representatives of different sciences tried to trace the development of the child from birth to adolescence. Pedologists were trained very thoroughly: they received knowledge in pedagogy, psychology, physiology, child psychiatry, neuropathology, anthropology, sociology, and theoretical classes were combined with everyday practical work.
In the 1930s criticism of many provisions of P. began (problems of the subject of P., bio- and sociogenesis, tests, etc.), 2 resolutions of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks were adopted. In 1936 P. was defeated, many scientists were repressed, the fate of others was crippled. All pedological institutes and laboratories were closed; P. was excluded from the curricula of all universities. Labels were generously pasted: Vygotsky was declared an "eclecticist", Basov and Blonsky were declared "propagandists of fascist ideas."
The rulings and the ensuing avalanche of "criticism" barbarously but skillfully distorted the very essence of P., accusing her of adherence to the biogenetic law, the theory of 2 factors (see. convergence theory), fatally predetermining the fate of the child by the frozen social environment and heredity (this word should have sounded abusive). In fact, V.P. Zinchenko, pedologists were ruined by their value system: “Intellect occupied one of the leading places in it. They valued above all labor, conscience, intelligence, initiative, nobility.
A number of works by Blonsky (for example: The development of schoolchildren's thinking. - M., 1935), the works of Vygotsky and his collaborators on child psychology laid the foundation for modern scientific knowledge about the mental development of the child. Proceedings of N.M. Shchelovanova, M.P. Denisova, N.L. Figurina (see. Revitalization Complex), which were created in pedological institutions by name, contained valuable factual material that was included in the fund of modern knowledge about the child and his development. These works formed the basis of the current system of education in infancy and early childhood, and the psychological research of Blonsky Vygotsky provided opportunities for the development of theoretical and applied problems of developmental and educational psychology in our country. At the same time, the real psychological meaning of the studies and their pedological design did not allow for a long time to separate one from the other and to appreciate their contribution to psychological science. (I.A. Meshcheryakova)
Addendum : Undoubtedly, sir. arbitrariness in relation to domestic P. played a decisive role in its tragic end, but attention is drawn to the fact that in other countries pedology eventually ceased to exist. The fate of P. as an instructive example of a short-lived project of complex science deserves a deep methodological analysis. (B. M.)
Psychological dictionary. A.V. Petrovsky M.G. Yaroshevsky
Dictionary of psychiatric terms. V.M. Bleikher, I.V. Crook
there is no meaning and interpretation of the word
Neurology. Complete explanatory dictionary. Nikiforov A.S.
there is no meaning and interpretation of the word
Oxford Dictionary of Psychology
Pedology- infantile speech.
subject area of the term
Pedology in Russia began to develop at the beginning of the last century. The founder of Russian pedology is considered to be A.P. Nechaev.
Later, V.M. joined him. Bekhterev and other scientists, and by 1920 this science was at the top of its development. Pedology is commonly understood as a scientific trend that combines different sciences in the study of child development - biology, psychology, medicine, etc.
From the history
Pedology is the science of children, this is the literal translation of this name. It consists of several main components, which include the study of the mental and physiological development of the child, taking into account the characteristics of his body (constitution) and age. The founder of pedology was S. Hall. He created the first pedology laboratory in the late 1880s.
It should be noted that a number of scientists connect the beginning of the science we are considering with the works of a doctor from Germany, D. Tiedemann, who studied the development of mental abilities in children. Later, a representative of the same country, the physiologist G. Preyer, also began to investigate the development of spiritual qualities in children. But all the same, the generally recognized pioneer of pedology is Hall, thanks to whose efforts about 30 laboratories were created in America in a few years, comprehensively studying the development of children.
Several pedological institutes were established in different regions. But after 1920, with the advent of Soviet power, the principles of pedology became objectionable to the policy of the party, which proclaimed a departure from experiments and a return to traditional teaching methods. Among the main reasons why pedology did not suit the ruling elite were the following:
- According to the results of testing, children born in "hostile" families were most often recognized as gifted - children of priests, White Guards, etc., and peasant children were usually classified as defective students.
- Overestimation of the natural abilities of students and underestimation of the cultural and historical components in the upbringing of children.
As a result, the Soviet government made a categorical conclusion that pedological practice is inappropriate for our public education. Even a special resolution was created, which spoke of the "perversions" of pedology and which completely eliminated this movement. Tests were ordered to be banned, and all pedologists were retrained as teachers.
At the same time, the textbooks of such well-known pedologists as Blonsky, Sokolov and others were categorically banned and removed from libraries. But the Soviet government did not stop there: many scientists were repressed or even executed.
However, we note that the party leaders failed to completely exterminate pedology. She had a new trend, which became known as pedagogical anthropology. Later, it was divided into several separate scientific currents: developmental psychology, educational psychology and developmental physiology, which together constitute pedology.
It turns out that it cannot be called a full-fledged science, but it cannot be attributed to the category of “pseudoscience”. At that stage, it was only a certain kind of scientific trend, which was artificially prevented from developing and forming into a full-fledged science with its own subject, object, methods, goals and objectives.
Criticism and reality
After pedology began to develop in America, its appearance also occurred in Europe, where it "went deep" and began to develop methodology for pedagogy. It is noteworthy that the term "pedology" was perceived by many and is currently perceived as a synonym for the hygiene of education, educational psychology, pedagogy and other scientific branches.
Pedology has been criticized on several points.
- Firstly, at one time she did not have highly qualified practitioners who could prove the validity of their views and applied methods.
- Secondly, the goal - to comprehensively study the child - cannot always be achieved.
- Thirdly, mass testing of children with poor adaptation of methods can show unreliable, and sometimes directly opposite, results.
One can argue for a long time about whether the leaders of the party elite, who in our country decided to call pedology a perversion, were right or not, but this, perhaps, is pointless. History cannot be changed.
Meanwhile, a number of scientists believe that at the time of the collapse of pedology in Russia, there was no future as such, so the Soviet government only served as an impetus for the inevitable process. Pedologists failed to form an integrated approach to the study of the child.
The reason is simple: pedology was based on those sciences that at the beginning of the last century in Russia did not reach their maturity, or even formation. These are, for example, pedagogy and psychology. And another important science - sociology - did not exist in Russia then at all, therefore there was no opportunity to build good interdisciplinary ties.
New life
But in fairness, it should be noted that the subject of pedology then, at the time of its appearance in Russia, was not precisely formulated. Scientists simply sought to comprehensively study children, taking into account all possible factors. If we take the provisions of this science in a broad sense, then all the basic pedological principles are reduced to four main ones:
- Each child is an integral system, and it cannot be considered separately as a psychological or physiological object.
- Children can only be understood by considering the fact that they are constantly in the process of development.
- Any child needs to be studied taking into account the environment in which he grows and is brought up, because it has a huge impact on his psyche.
- The science of children should be not only theoretical, but also have practical methods.
Pedology as a science in our country established itself and in the 1960s began to be widely used in children's institutions: schools, kindergartens, teenage clubs. And in the capitals of Russia - Moscow and Leningrad - even entire institutes of pedology appeared, whose employees studied children from birth to adolescence.
Modern Russian pedology develops primarily within the framework of the so-called children's research. Scientists are considering the anthropology of childhood, taking child psychology and pedagogy as a basis.
There is a special research group that works in Moscow on the basis of the Russian State University for the Humanities. At its core, the main purpose of their research is an interdisciplinary approach to the study of the personality of the child. By the way, most of these researchers are not teachers or psychologists, but historians. Author: Elena Ragozina
It is known that pedology as a science about children took shape in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The child has been studied before. But this study was carried out then by different sciences in the aspect inherent in each of them. Each of the sciences used its own methods. Anatomists studied the anatomical development of the child - height, weight depending on age, genetic psychology - the development of the child's psyche, physiology - the development of the physiological functions of the child's body, pedagogy - the effectiveness of various methods of raising and educating the child, hygiene - the influence of various external factors on the physical and mental condition of the child, etc.
Pedology saw in such a multifaceted study of the child a great flaw - the lack of coordination of all the above-mentioned aspects of the study of the child, the isolation from each other of all the data obtained as a result of the study of the child. Pedologists set as their goal to overcome this vice and study the child as a whole, in the interconnection and interaction of all the mental and physical manifestations of the child under the influence of biological and social factors.
It is interesting to note that pedologists themselves understood the complexity of these tasks and therefore experienced great difficulties in defining the subject of their science.
Thus, the founder of Soviet pedology, Professor P.P. Blonsky, gives different interpretations of the subject of pedology:
- 1. Pedology is the science of the characteristics of childhood.
- 2. Pedology is the science "about the growth, constitution and behavior of a typical mass child in various eras and phases of childhood."
- 3. "Pedology studies the symptom complexes of various eras, phases and stages of childhood in their temporal sequence and in their dependence on various conditions."
Pedology is a science that combines the approaches of medicine, biology, pedagogy and psychotechnics to the development of a child. And although as a term it has become outdated and acquired the format of child psychology, universal pedological methods attract the attention of not only scientists, but also people outside the scientific world.
The history of pedology begins in the West at the end of the 19th century. Its emergence was largely facilitated by the intensive development of applied branches of experimental pedagogy and psychology. The unification of their approaches with anatomical-physiological and biological ones in pedology happened mechanically. More precisely, it was dictated by a comprehensive, comprehensive study of the mental development of children, their behavior. The term "pedology" was introduced by the American research scientist Oscar Crisman in 1853. Translated from Greek, the definition sounds like "the science of children" (pedos - child, logos - science, study).
The first works on pedology were written by American psychologists G.S. Hall, J. Baldwin and physiologist W. Preyer.
It was they who stood at the origins of developmental psychology and collected a huge amount of empirical material on the development and behavior of children. Their work became revolutionary in many ways and formed the basis of child and developmental psychology.
At the beginning of the 20th century, a new scientific trend penetrated Russia (then the USSR) and received a worthy continuation in the works of the psychiatrist and reflexologist V.M. Bekhterev, psychologist A.P. Nechaev, physiologist E. Meyman and defectologist G.I. Rossolimo. Each of them, by virtue of his specialty, tried to explain and formulate the laws of child development and methods for its correction. Pedology in Russia gained practical scope: pedological institutes and the "House of the Child" (Moscow) were opened, a number of specialized courses were held. Psychological tests were conducted in schools, the results of which were used to complete classes. Leading psychologists, physiologists, doctors and teachers of the country were involved in the study of child psychology. All this was done with the aim of a comprehensive study of child development. However, such a simple task did not quite justify the means. By the 1920s, pedology in Russia was an extensive scientific movement, but not a complex science. The main obstacle to the synthesis of knowledge about the child was the lack of a preliminary analysis of the methods of the sciences that make up this complex.
The main mistakes of Soviet pedologists were considered to be the underestimation of the role of hereditary factors in the development of children and the influence of the social environment on the formation of their personalities. In a practical aspect, scientific miscalculations include the flaw and application of tests for intellectual development. In the 1930s, all the shortcomings were gradually corrected, and Soviet pedology began a more confident and meaningful path. However, already in 1936 it became "pseudo-science", objectionable to the political system of the country. Revolutionary experiments were curtailed, pedological laboratories were closed. Testing, as the main pedological method, has become vulnerable in educational practice. Since, according to the results, the most often gifted were the children of priests, the White Guards and the "rotten" intelligentsia, and not the proletariat. And this went against the ideology of the party. So the upbringing of children returned to traditional forms, which caused stagnation in the educational system.
Principles of pedology
The development of pedology in Russia has brought certain results, it has formed the basic scientific principles: Pedology is a holistic knowledge about the child. From this position, it is considered not “in parts”, but as a whole, as a creation simultaneously biological, social, psychological, etc. All aspects of its study are interconnected and intertwined. But this is not just a random collection of data, but a clear compilation of theoretical settings and methods. The second reference point of pedologists was the genetic principle. It was actively studied by psychologist L.S. Vygotsky. Using the example of a child’s egocentric speech (“speech minus sound”), he proved that baby talk or “mumbling under his breath” is the first stage of a person’s inner speech or thinking. The genetic principle demonstrates the prevalence of this phenomenon.
The third principle - the study of childhood - proved that the social environment and life significantly affect the psychological and anthropomorphic development of the child. So, neglect or rigidity of upbringing, malnutrition affect the mental and physiological health of the child. The fourth principle lies in the practical significance of pedology - the transition from knowing the child's world to changing it. In this regard, pedological counseling, conversations with parents, and psychological diagnostics of children were created.
Pedology is a complex science, therefore its principles are based on a comprehensive study of the child. Psychology and pedology have long been identified with each other, the second concept came out of the first. Therefore, the psychological aspect is still dominant in pedology. Since the 1950s, the ideas of pedology began to partially return to pedagogy and psychology. And 20 years later, active educational work began using tests for the intellectual development of children.
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Pedology (from Greek rbydt - child and Greek lgpt - science) is a direction in science that aimed to combine the approaches of various sciences (medicine, biology, psychology, pedagogy) to the development of the child.
The term is obsolete, and currently has only historical significance. Most of the productive scientific results of pedological research have been assimilated by childhood psychology.
Story.
In the world. The emergence of pedology was caused by the penetration of evolutionary ideas into psychology and pedagogy and the development of applied branches of psychology and experimental pedagogy. The first works of a pedological nature date back to the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries. - G. S. Hall, J. Baldwin, E. Meyman, V. Preyer and others. The term "pedology" was proposed in 1893 by the American researcher Oscar Chrisman.
Pedology in Russia and the USSR. In Russia, the ideas of pedology were accepted and developed by V.M. Bekhterev, G.I. Rossolimo, A.P. Nechaev and others, while I. Pavlov and his school were very critical.
In the USSR, pedology was at its peak in the 1920s and 1930s, especially after the support of L.D. Trotsky, when pedology was "crossed" with Freudianism. Schools were actively introducing the practices of psychological testing, completing classes, organizing a school regime, etc. In Moscow and Petrograd, institutes of Soviet “psychoanalytic pedology” were created, corresponding to the “House of the Child” (A. Luria, V. Schmidt, E. Adler).
However, the strong bias in the activities of pedological laboratories towards sorting students on the basis of their intellectual qualities was not consistent with the line of the Communist Party on the equality of all representatives of the working class in obtaining education, and was not consistent with the ideology of universal equality, embodied in the practice of "group education". In addition, the illiterate implementation of the "psychoanalytic" bias in the upbringing of children showed the entire inconsistency of the union of pedology and psychoanalysis that had long existed at the expense of the state. A.S. Makarenko and K.I. Chukovsky waged an active struggle against pedology.
The result of this was the defeat and collapse of pedology, which came after the decision of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks "On pedological perversions in the system of the People's Commissariat of Education" (1936).
However, along with pedology, the development of some productive branches of psychology as a natural science discipline was frozen for many years.
Since the 1950s a gradual return of some ideas of pedology to pedagogy and psychology begins.
Since the 1970s active work has begun on the use of tests in pedagogy and the education system.
The main representatives of Soviet pedology: P.P. Blonsky, M.Ya. Basov, L.S. Vygotsky.
One of the prominent trends in modern Russian pedagogy reflects the desire to experimentally investigate various pedagogical issues and phenomena. Experimental pedagogy goes hand in hand with experimental psychology and shares the same fate with it: whoever attaches great importance to the experimental method in the field of the study of mental phenomena will be inclined to seek the solution of pedagogical problems in the same experimental way. The fact is that both psychological and pedagogical experiments are related, closely related to each other, although each of these types has its own, somewhat special tasks and its own methodology: psychological experiments are laboratory, divorced from life, very abstract in terms of task, but very accurate; pedagogical - complex, more vital, carried out at school in ordinary school conditions, and therefore less accurate. Anyone who is not a fan of the experiment in psychology will hardly give it a wide place in pedagogy. And about the significance of experimental psychology, about the limits of its application, about the value of the data obtained by it, there is still a dispute, there is still no agreement in opinions; experimental pedagogy is in the same position. The dispute, in fact, can be reduced to such a basic question - is it about new sciences or only about new methods of research in science? Defenders of experiments in the study of psychological and pedagogical phenomena often argue that they are the heralds of a new truth, a new science, that the former psychology and pedagogy are already something obsolete, old, scholastic, all this junk must be forgotten, there is no use from it, but it is necessary start anew, build new, experimental psychology and pedagogy. Such a negatively contemptuous attitude towards the former psychology and pedagogy is completely wrong and is the result of an understandable enthusiasm for a new direction in science. It is impossible to throw overboard the old psychology and pedagogy, because experimental psychology and pedagogy are only new methods of research in science, and not new sciences. In order to investigate something experimentally, one must already be familiar with a given area of phenomena, understand its significance and the need for a more thorough study of it; the very setting of the experiment, i.e., the choice of a known particular phenomenon for study, presupposes an analysis of the complex in which it enters as an element; the derivation of consequences from the experiment and their scientific evaluation also require general considerations and discussions. In a word, each experiment is a small part of a great whole, about which it is necessary to have an idea before starting to experiment with the mind and consciousness. Experimental studies are usually very detailed analytical studies, the understanding of which requires a broad synthesis, and in pedagogy in particular, the concepts of goals and ideals, judgments about good and bad, expedient and inexpedient, their degrees, which are usually not given by simple factual knowledge, are necessary. whether acquired by experiment or otherwise.
In order to judge the value of this or that pedagogical system, it is not enough to know that, according to experimental verification, the student began to memorize easier, to judge more accurately, his imagination became more alive, etc., you need to know that he generally became the best or the worst person. And for this, a broad sociological verification of all human activity is needed, and not a partial experimental one.
“To speak in favor of some end, any appointment or intention is to declare that this end is better than another end, that this appointment is more worthy than another, that this intention is more valuable than another. But if there is anything that enters into the concept of science itself, it is the unswerving recognition that in the world of scientific facts nothing is good or bad, valuable or worthless, worthy or unworthy: of a scientific fact, we can only say that he is" 1.
Quite rightly, one of the most prominent representatives of experimental psychology and pedagogy among us argues that “the first merit (and, in our opinion, the most important P.K.) of experimental psychology over didactics is the ideal of accuracy and conclusiveness of the study of questions of school education that it vividly sets forth. . Instead of unfounded assertions and general (not always definite) impressions, it introduces exactly described facts, scientifically verified propositions into didactics. At the same time, sometimes in a brilliant way, what many teachers agreed with for a long time is confirmed, sometimes the incorrectness of the prevailing didactic premises is revealed.
The former psychology, and in connection with it, pedagogy, was based on self-observation and observations on others, the new, experimental one, on experiment. Thus, by their very foundations, the old and the new psychology and pedagogy seemed to be essentially different. The old ones had close ties with philosophy, logic, ethics, and the closest friends of the new ones were physiology, hygiene, anthropology. "Tell me who your friends are and I'll tell you who you are." And the friends of the old and new psychology and pedagogy are very different. But upon closer examination, the differences are not so great.
If one psychology and pedagogy were based on observation, and the other on experiment, then there is no need to oppose observation and experiment. They are undoubtedly different, but not opposite, there is a natural connection between them. Experiments are made not only by man, but also by nature, when she reveals the same property under different conditions, in varying degrees of strength and with unequal shades, when, in a word, she modifies the property depending on the conditions. People who do not want to experiment and even, perhaps, have not heard anything about experiments, setting other new conditions for activity, encourage them to modify their properties and activity, that is, they experiment without suspecting it themselves, as is often the case in the field of education, when new techniques and methods of education and training are introduced when the pedagogical environment surrounding the educated changes, when a new teacher arrives. From this arises the concept of a natural experiment, i.e., the observation of a phenomenon under various conditions, proposed by some defenders of experimental psychology and pedagogy. Let children and youth indulge in sports, games, gymnastics, manual labor and not suspect that at this time they are subjected to the most careful observation, taking into account all the manifestations of mental life that are planned to be taken into account. Such a systematic observation of the complex manifestations of the mental life of children in the ordinary conditions of their home or school environment, carried out according to a predetermined plan, is a natural experiment. According to the results, in terms of accuracy, it is lower than a laboratory study, but higher than a simple non-systematized observation 3.
Of course, this is true, nature (if it is only possible to personify it) produces experiments, but a person cognizes natural experiments by a process denoted in logic by the name of observation, and not experiment. It is true that man himself may experiment quite often without being aware of it, although his unintentional experiments will be very lax and therefore not entirely accurate.
If careful observation (a natural experiment) is of great importance for experimental psychology and pedagogy, self-observation is no less important for them. Even in some types of psychological experiment, when it comes to the study of elementary sensations, self-observation does not play a significant role, and the experimented subject turns to a certain extent into a simple, as it were, dead instrument of experience, the experience of which during the experiment is of no concern to the experimenter. But the situation is quite different in cases where complex phenomena are studied, and pedagogical experiments concern ordinary complex phenomena. It is impossible to understand the answers to questions about such complex phenomena if one does not pay attention to the experiences that accompany them, to the psychic environment in which they arise and which determines their character. And about the mental experiences corresponding to a given phenomenon, about the mental environment of a known phenomenon, the experimenter can report only by self-observation. The more precise and sharper the latter, the more valuable and fruitful the experiment will be; the narrower and more vague the self-observation, the darker the meaning and significance of the testimony of the experimenter. The meaning of a word can be understood by considering it separately; but we can correctly understand its exact meaning in a certain place in the writer only when we take the given word in the context, i.e., in the whole sentence, in the given period, in the passage. Experiments about the meaning of individual, disparate words are psychological, laboratory experimentation; experiments about the meaning of a word taken in context, in connection with a whole passage, are pedagogical experimentation.
Thus, for all experiments concerning more or less complex phenomena, and especially for pedagogical ones, the observation by the experimenters themselves of their states is an essential factor in the value of the experiment. Consequently, in the experiment, the psychology and pedagogy of self-observation, the old ones, and the psychology and pedagogy of experience, the new ones, meet and act together.
Therefore, there can be no question of denying the former psychology and pedagogy, recognizing them as empty scholasticism and replacing them with new ones. The connection of the old psychology and pedagogy with the new ones is preserved, the new ones are a further development of the former ones, mainly from the methodological side. The significance of experimental psychology and pedagogy as new research methods in science is indisputable and serious.
By the very essence of knowledge based on simple observation, even if it is many years and careful, it does not have complete accuracy and distinctness. The mere observation is under great pressure from the prevailing views and habits; observation often confirms the existence of something that is not really there, that is only in the mind of the observer, which arouses firm belief in him. Experience is very little subject to such distortion by preconceived ideas and faith, it is colder and stricter, it tests subjective assumptions with measure and weight, with precise instruments that are impassive, that are alien to love and hate. Therefore, experimental research, no matter what it is applied to, dispels fog, uncertainty, it everywhere brings light and clear outlines. The same thing happens when applied to the study of child personality. But such a study is only just beginning, and there are very few independent Russian works in this direction. To a certain extent, an indicator of the success of experimental studies of children in the preschool period of their life can be the publication of a publication of the Pedagogical Academy under the title "The Spiritual Life of Children". In this issue of two articles, N.E. Rumyantsev “How has the spiritual life of children been studied and is being studied?” and “The character and personality of the child.
The study of personality ”, the reader can get acquainted with the former and current methods of studying a child’s personality, with the history of the emergence of child psychology, with the classification of children’s characters, compiling characteristics, etc. In addition, the following issues are considered in the named issue: heredity and environment as factors in education ; about memory; about attention; about the development of imagination in children; about children's games; about the development of children's speech; about the main periods in the development of the mental life of children. All these are very important, very essential questions of child psychology, without a detailed solution of which it is impossible to construct a correct theory of family education of children. It should only be noted that the articles on the study of the above-mentioned aspects of the mental life of children are not so much independent experimental research as they are acquaintances with the work in the field of child psychology by foreign experimenters. But it is also difficult to expect the emergence of independent research in a given field of science before a detailed acquaintance with foreign works and their critical assimilation. It is clear, therefore, that the study of the mental manifestations of children continues and through systematic observations, systematic and extensive plans for such observations are published by the figures in the field of experimental psychology themselves (see, for example, the work of A.F. Lazursky “Program for the Study of Personality” and G.I. Rassolimo "Plan for the study of the child's soul in a healthy and diseased state", M., 1909).
Interest in new research methods in the field of psychology and pedagogy in the Russian educational and pedagogical world is quite large, as evidenced by two congresses on pedagogical-experimental psychology and two on experimental pedagogy, held in St. Petersburg in recent years - all four are very crowded, attracting a lot of participants from all over Russia; psychological and pedagogical experimental rooms created for scientific experimental research in St. Petersburg, Moscow, Odessa and some other cities; psychological classrooms at gymnasiums, designed to demonstrate experiments in teaching psychology; courses in experimental psychology and pedagogy at the Pedagogical Academy in Petrograd; rather rapidly growing literature on these branches of knowledge, however, mainly translated.
With the spread of interest in experimental research and in the course of the creation of psychological classrooms in secondary educational institutions, the question naturally arose about the possibility and expediency of practical applications of experimental research in schools in teaching and education. There were heated debates on this issue at congresses on experimental psychology and pedagogy. Some fans of experimental pedagogy assumed that it was already possible to use new psychological data to solve practical pedagogical problems, that with the help of simple psychological cabinets and simple experiments with calculations, it would be possible to penetrate the recesses of mental life, to find out the essence of the individual, the level of his talent, his general orientation and inclinations in the future, etc. Obviously, all this is exaggerated hopes, hot hobbies. Experimental psychology is a new scientific trend that is just beginning to work out its own paths, posing questions to itself, trying to solve all kinds of and sometimes very difficult and intricate problems. It is in the period of searches, experiments, it is groping for both tasks and methods. New and new horizons are opening before him, very vast and very complex. Of course, little has been achieved so far to decide anything firmly, to establish any new truths and principles of experimental psychology, which is quite natural, and therefore the naive confidence in the possibility of finding practical applications of experimental psychology today does not have sufficient grounds. For the time being, this scientific direction is the work of scientists, and not of practical workers, and psychological classrooms at gymnasiums, according to the decision of the last congress on experimental pedagogy in Petrograd, should serve to demonstrate new research methods, and by no means to solve practical pedagogical problems.
One of the types of research practiced by new psychologists and educators is questionnaires, that is, questionnaires addressed to the masses. You can ask about known objects of individuals, selecting them according to gender, age, education, cultural conditions of life, or without any selection - every acquaintance you meet; you can offer questions at once to the whole audience or class, asking them to prepare answers by a certain date; printed questionnaires can be sent out, distributing them in tens of thousands of copies. The method is simple, but it also requires caution. One must always skillfully and deliberately put questions, briefly, accurately and at the same time accessible. Quite often questionnaires sin against these elementary rules and reduce the value of the questionnaire. Respondents must be selected or answers grouped; to lump together the answers of adults and children, educated and uneducated, men and women, is to deprive the questionnaire of any scientific value. Finally, you need to be sure that the questions posed were understood by the respondents, that when answering they did not receive help from anywhere, for example, children - from adults. Here are two very interesting questionnaires conducted by domestic teachers.
One Russian researcher became interested in the issue of the physical and geographical representations of children, for which he sent out the corresponding questionnaires to educational institutions, male and female, in the cities of Kiev, Vilna, Zhitomir and Glukhov. Pupils and pupils of preparatory classes at the age of 9-11 were interviewed. 500 responses were sent. The questions on the questionnaires were as follows: did the respondent see the rising sun, morning dawn, open horizon, valley, ravine, beam, stream, springs, pond, water meadow, swamp, eared field, field work, loamy soil, chernozem, ice drift, sign whether he is picking mushrooms in the forest, boating on the river, swimming in the river, whether he knows the countries of the world. In addition, it was required to report whether he traveled by rail, on a steamboat, whether he walked outside the city, whether he lived in the countryside and in other cities. It turned out that, on average, only half of the students saw and had an idea about these phenomena; with some words (for example, soil), only a third of the respondents connect real ideas. Knowledge of individual natural phenomena and occupations fluctuates between 25% (ice drift) and 80% (picking mushrooms in the forest). By dividing the proposed questions according to their content into three groups, we get the following percentage of affirmative answers:
1) astronomical representations: horizon, sunrise, dawn, cardinal points - 44.3%;
2) physical and geographical: valley, ravine, ravine, stream, spring, pond, swamp, water meadow, eared field, loamy or chernozem soil - 52%;
3) general acquaintance with nature, including the following activities: picking mushrooms in the forest, field work, boating, swimming in the river - 68.7.
17.6% (88 people out of 500) took country walks on foot, went by steamboat and railroad, 50.8% (254 people) did not take country walks, 38.2% (191 people) did not go by steamboat, 11.4% (57 people) did not travel by rail. From the same questionnaire, it turns out that country walks on foot constitute the main condition for a wide range of physical and geographical representations: the world of physical and geographical representations of children who did not walk outside the city is not only miserable quantitatively, but also very peculiar in composition.
From the considered point of view, the article by N.V. Chekhov "On the threshold to school and from school". (With what knowledge and skills do illiterate children come to school? How do they feel about schoolwork and what do they take out of school? See the 10th edition of the collection “Issues and Needs of Teachers”). This article was compiled on the basis of a questionnaire conducted in the summer of 1909 among students of the summer Moscow teacher's courses. All answers concern pupils of rural schools. In total, there were 174 classified and counted answers. There were a lot of questions (49), we will focus on answers only to the main questions.
Do children freely understand the questions of adults (and teachers) in everyday life and can they give sensible answers to them? 144 responses were received, distributed as follows:
Questions are not understood, 44 (31%)
Most do not understand, 23 (15%)
They understand, but cannot answer, 46 (32%)
Understand and give sensible answers, 31 (22%)
Can they coherently tell what happened to them and what they saw?
Can't, 97 (67%);
A minority can, 20 (13%);
They know how, 27 (20%).
Thus, in half of the schools, all or most of the students, upon entering the school, neither understand the teacher's questions, nor are they able to answer sensibly "due to the inability to master speech." Four-fifths of the students are unable to coherently describe what happened to them or what they saw.
Most, but not all, know their name and the name of their village. In half of the schools, children do not know their patronymic or last name.
Up to how many can they usually count? In most cases, children entering school can count up to 10. Only children in 19 schools can count up to 10, while in others they continue to count, namely: up to 20 - in 21 schools, from 20 to 100 - in 43 schools. 38 schools can count in pairs, 79 do not know how to count; heels - they can at 20 and can't at 97; counting in tens at 27 and not at 70. Thus, in most schools, children can count up to 10 or 20, in a minority - up to 100, and in about 1/3 of schools they can count in pairs, heels and tens. Children entering school have knowledge of measures and coins, for example, in most schools they know coins, they do not know only in 20 schools.
Acquaintance with nature - with animals found in the area, birds, fish, insects, plants, etc. In most cases, the number of animals known to children in one school is very limited, and often they do not know the most common ones. For some orders of animals, many children have only common names. In any case, in any alphabet there will be a much larger number of animal names, and, consequently, a significant part of these names will be unknown to children, although they may know this animal, but under a common name with relatives to it. According to the number of names mentioned in the answers, the first place belongs to birds, then trees, fish, flowers, insects, wild mammals and, finally, reptiles. In this sequence, apparently, children develop an interest in wildlife. In some places, species names are used instead of generic ones (for example, in the Kuban, children call all trees oaks, in the Kazan province - birches, in Tambov - twigs).
There is no doubt that all the didactics and methods of elementary school should be based on such careful examination of the mental and moral baggage of the children they bring to school. It is ridiculous to start learning to count from one, to stop at a detailed study of the numbers of the first ten, when children can count up to 10, 20, up to 100, they can count in pairs, heels; it is useless to require children to repeat the teacher's story when they do not understand his simple question and cannot, if they did, answer it. Gymnasium pedagogy should have the same basis - a detailed scientific examination of the physical and spiritual personality of children entering the gymnasium.
Regarding the methodological perfection of the above two questionnaires, the following should be noted: in the first, the questions are clearly posed, the answers are selected, but it remains unknown how the questionnaires were filled out, whether there were any conversations, help, etc. at that time. It is impossible not to notice that the children interviewed did not live in one locality, but in four different ones, as a result of which local conditions could influence the answers and thereby reduce the value of the questionnaire. The second questionnaire was conducted among teachers who came from 41 provinces of Russia and Finland, hence, from areas with different nature, language of inhabitants and different cultural backgrounds. Already this circumstance significantly weakens the scientific value of the questionnaire, and the breadth of some questions joins it. For example, what does the question mean: can children talk coherently? What are the criteria for skill and incompetence? One teacher could consider one as such, and another - others. In the same way, the first question is broad and vague: do children freely understand the questions of adults in everyday life and can they give sensible answers to them? The degrees of understanding and sensibility are different, understanding and sensibility can often come into contact with misunderstanding and stupidity, as a result of which the same answer can be attributed to opposite groups - sensible and stupid. At the same time, teachers answered the second questionnaire not at home, but in Moscow, having gathered for courses, therefore, from memory, without proper information and preparation, all this cannot but negatively affect the value of the questionnaire.
The most characteristic method of research by new psychologists and educators is, of course, experiment. In order to clarify the use of experiment for solving psychological and pedagogical problems, we will present two Russian experimental studies aimed at solving two very important problems, namely, about the mental characteristics of the blind and about methods for determining personal characteristics. The first study belongs to A. Krogius, the second - to G.I. Rossolimo.
The work of A. Krogius is only a part of the work devoted to the study of the processes of perception in the blind; the second part will include a study of the blind processes of representation, memory, thinking, and emotional-volitional life. Thus, the entire spiritual world of the blind was supposed to be subjected to experimental examination. The essence of the first half of the work already done can be stated as follows: on the physical side, the blind are characterized by insufficient development of the muscular system, a weakening of the general nutrition, and their entire physical development seems to be weak, delayed; growth is mostly below average, the skeletal system is thin, fragile. Often there are traces of rickets, an abnormally large head, curvature of the lower extremities and spine, thickening of the joints, etc. The activity of the heart, lungs, gastrointestinal and other internal organs is often weakened. Due to the general weakening of the vital activity of the internal organs, the blind are excessively susceptible to various infectious diseases and are unable to fight them. And the morbidity and mortality among them are very high. Of those born blind and blind in childhood, only a few survive to old age. Nervous diseases are also frequent in the blind. In general, the picture of the physical condition of the blind is disappointing. One of the main reasons for the weak physical development of the blind is their lack of mobility. Fearing to run into obstacles, the blind involuntarily limit their movements, which is expressed in the whole figure of the blind: the position of the body of the blind is mostly bent, the head is stretched forward, they move hesitantly, with concentration; the face of the blind man is inactive, there is no facial expression. Sometimes it gives the impression of a marble sculpture. The games of the blind are rarely alive. With little blind people, the game often consists in jumping up on the spot and raising their hands up. But they develop significantly automatic movements: pointing with the head, with the whole body, spinning in one place, various contractions of the muscles of the upper and lower extremities. Especially often they have pressure on the eyeball.
In almost all writings on the psychology of the blind, there is a remark that the blind perceive sound stimuli better than the sighted. According to the author's experimental studies, the blind better determine the direction of the sound than the sighted: with the same experiments, the total number of errors in the blind was 365.5, and in the sighted - 393.5. For the blind, the voice of the speakers has the same meaning as the face has for the sighted: it is a conductor for them of spiritual properties and changes in the mood and consciousness of the speakers; by their gait, by their voice they recognize people whom they have heard for a long time. “If the eyes are the mirror of the soul,” one blind woman remarked, “then the voice is her echo, her breath; the voice reveals the deepest feelings, the most intimate movements. You can artificially create an expression for yourself, but you can’t do it with a voice. Instead of insufficient vision, the blind are gifted, as it were, with a special “sixth sense”. What does it consist of? It consists in the ability to recognize indoors and outdoors, while moving and standing, whether the blind person is in front of any object, whether the latter is large, wide or narrow, separate with a gap or a continuous solid barrier; a blind man can even know, without touching an object, whether there is a wooden fence, a brick wall, or a hedge in front of him; and does not confuse shops with residential buildings, can indicate doors, windows, regardless of whether they are open or closed. One blind man was walking with his sighted friend and, pointing to the palisade separating the road from the field, said: "This fence is somewhat lower than my shoulder." The sighted man replied that he was taller. The fence was measured and found to be three fingers below the shoulder. The height of the fence was determined by a blind man at a distance of four feet. If the lower part of the fence is made of bricks and the upper part of wood, then this can easily be determined by the blind in the same way as the line of division. Irregularities in height, projections and depressions of the walls can also be recognized.
What is the source of the "sixth sense"? Some previous researchers tried to look for it in the surviving remnants of vision, but numerous facts strongly refuted this hypothesis.
In modern times, three assumptions have been put forward on the mentioned issue:
1) the "sixth sense" is due to auditory sensations and has its own source in them;
2) the "sixth sense" is reduced to the tactile sensations of the face, is associated with tactile sensitivity and rests on its sophistication;
3) the "sixth sense" is due mainly to the temperature sensations of the face - the absorption of radiant heat from surrounding objects and its return to these latter. The author of the work under consideration adheres to the third hypothesis, which he created. Her main reasons are as follows:
Weakening of the "sixth sense" when wetting the veil that covered the subject's face during the experiments. In this case, there is a decrease in the thermal transparency of the bedspread, while its gas permeability remains without much change, as with the dryness of the bedspread;
Preservation of the "sixth sense" with a wax paper cover; with a slight change in the thermal transparency of the bedspread and a complete blockage of the air flow by it, the function of the "sixth sense" both when walking and at rest decreases only slightly - corresponding to a slight decrease in thermal transparency;
The presence of a "sixth sense" in a calm position, both acting on the subject under test, and the subject himself;
An increase or decrease in the "sixth sense" with an increase or decrease in the temperature of the stimulus;
The dependence of the "sixth sense" on the amount of radiated heat.
Against the theory of auditory sensations as the source of the “sixth sense”, the following facts can be cited:
1) localization of the "sixth sense" in the face (not a single blind person localized it in the ears);
2) the preservation of the "sixth sense" with tightly closed ears;
3) the presence of a "sixth sense" in the deaf;
4) a gradual decrease in the "sixth sense" depending on the thickness of the bedspread;
5) inability to perceive the approach of objects from above and behind.
Based primarily on temperature sensations, the "sixth sense" finds support in auditory and any other sensations received by the blind. A change in, for example, auditory perceptions from approaching objects is sometimes extremely important for a blind person. This change is a signal irritation, already from afar warning the blind of the presence of an obstacle and forcing him to pay special attention to irritations acting on the skin of the face, that is, thermal and tactile.
The tactile and tactile-motor perceptions of the blind are worse than those of the sighted. A variety of experiments carried out in this direction, constantly gave the same result - a greater number of errors in perception in the blind than in the sighted. Vision plays the role of a kind of educator of tactile impressions - in the presence of it, tactile perceptions receive greater accuracy and certainty.
The spatial perceptions of the blind differ to a large extent from the spatial perceptions of the sighted, which is quite understandable. In the discrimination of spatial forms, the most prominent place among the blind is occupied by active touch, which takes place during the movement of the touching finger and during convergent palpation, i.e., by several parts of the body at once. It happens slowly and is accompanied by rather significant inaccuracies. Objects very large and distant are inaccessible to the direct perception of the blind, and the recognition of small familiar forms that appear in a slightly different form is difficult for the blind. If a blind person has become acquainted, for example, with a plaster model of some animal, then he is unable to recognize another model of the same animal depicting it in a different position. He knows physical objects by one or two signs, especially prominent ones, for example, by horns, beak, etc., and therefore he easily confuses: he mixes a bear with a dog, the head of Venus de Milo with the head of a horse. In the perception of the actual space of the blind, the main role is played by the sequential addition of elements, in the perception of the sighted, their simultaneity. Therefore, the space of the blind is more abstract than the space of the sighted, and numerical verbal symbols and reduced schemes play a very prominent role in it. When educating the blind, these methods should be brought to the fore, since they give the blind the opportunity to form a holistic view of spatial relationships at the same time. Large objects and large models greatly interfere with the emergence of blind holistic ideas in the mind.
G.I. Rossolimo deals with mental profiles. A profile is a special warehouse of personality, explored with the help of specially designed tasks. The number of mental processes studied is 11: attention, will, accuracy of perception, memorization of visual impressions, elements of speech, numbers, meaningfulness, combination ability, sharpness, imagination, observation; separate study groups - 38, because mental processes are studied from various angles, for example, attention in relation to stability:
a) simple
b) with a choice
c) with distraction and in relation to volume;
The accuracy of the susceptibility of visual impressions:
a) with sequential recognition,
b) with simultaneous judgment,
c) during subsequent reproduction and recognition of colors, etc.
In each group of studies - 10 experiments, and a total of 380 experiments. The graphic profile is expressed by a curve: a diagram is drawn in the form of 38 equal vertical lines, each divided into 10 equal parts. To determine the height of each process, the principle of positive and negative answers to 10 tasks related to each group was used.
If all 10 problems are solved correctly, then on the vertical line corresponding to this group, a point is placed on the tenth division, if only four out of 10 problems are correctly solved, then the point is placed on the fourth division. At the end of the study, the experimenter connects the points placed on each of the 38 perpendiculars with straight lines, and the psychological profile is ready.
The author suggests that his profiles can be widely used: to develop the question of the types of mental individualities; for comparative study of the same individual; to solve various general pedagogical issues, etc.
It is obvious that the author's method is associated with painstaking and extremely tedious experimental work, with a mass of diagrams and lengthy numerical calculations. How well the author chose 11 processes for the characteristics of the psychological profile is a big question, much and important is left without research, and the same activity in essence is examined several times under different names, for example, meaningfulness, ingenuity, combinational activity. In general, the theoretical foundations of the method and choice of just the listed processes, and not any others, perhaps more characteristic of the individual, are not indicated. For the production of all 380 experiments, the author spends 3 1/2 hours during quick work, distributing this time over 4 days and more; but sometimes he had to hurry and carry out the whole work of research in one day. Not to mention such emergency work in one day, which strongly resembles an ordinary hasty school exam, but even in 4 days it is difficult to correctly and confidently detect a person’s spiritual face; after all, in this short period, he can be in a somewhat special state, imperceptible and unknown to the researcher, be slightly excited or depressed, experience an oncoming illness, be under the influence of some event, etc. Therefore, for a real penetration into the soul of a person and its correct The characteristics of the psychological profile must certainly be compiled several times, especially when moving from one age to another, and compiled slowly, thoughtfully. In any case, the method of G.I. Rossolimo is interesting, largely developed, a lot of work has been put into its improvement. Rossolimo's "profiles" deserve attention also because this method is widely used in practice.
Despite the youth and natural imperfection of experimental psychological and pedagogical research, they managed to have a beneficial effect on the organization of school education in one significant respect - on the desire to single out children who are incapable, backward and poorly developing from ordinary schools. It is known what a burden on the class are the enumerated groups of students; this was known, of course, for a long time, but the natural remedy for evil was considered to be the exclusion of those deprived of nature. With the spread of careful study of the personality of students, it came to the conclusion that all these so-called incompetent and backward children are not so bad that nothing could come of them. The whole trouble is that they cannot successfully study in ordinary schools for normal children; but if we were to create schools adapted to their characteristics, to the level of their abilities, then perhaps there would be success. They made an attempt, it turned out to be successful, and, following the example of the so-called Mannheim system, they began to talk about the need to divide schools:
1) to ordinary schools - for normal children,
2) for auxiliary - for backward
3) for repetition - for the weakly gifted.
Moscow already has parallel departments for handicapped children at city schools. The organization of such departments is based on the following principles: a limited number of students (from 15 to 20); strict individualization of education; the pursuit is not so much for the amount of information, but for their high-quality processing; special attention to physical education (good nutrition, staying in the yard for at least an hour, frequent changes in classes due to the rapid fatigue of children, gymnastics, modeling, drawing); development in children with the help of appropriate exercises of observation, attentiveness, etc. There are similar departments for retarded children in Petrograd - at city schools, a private institution of Dr. Malyarevsky, etc. In view of the importance of this issue, a whole a number of reports on the study of personality traits in general and determining the degree of intellectual insufficiency of children in particular, mainly according to foreign models, and even some private questions were discussed about how best to educate the incapacitated - in a boarding school or coming, in what proportion should there be a message in such schools scientific information and exercises in the craft, is it possible to indicate simple and practical ways to recognize such children, etc. Finally, the opposite question arose: should not gifted children be singled out from the general mass of schoolchildren? (Report by V.P. Kashchenko). Gifted children often do almost as badly in schools as poor children, only for slightly different reasons, although, in the end, the reason is essentially the same - a mismatch between teaching and personal abilities and needs. If it is now considered a duty of justice to single out the incapable from the general mass of schoolchildren, then isn't it an even greater moral obligation to single out gifted children from the crowd of mediocrities? There is already a society in memory of Lomonosov in Moscow, which aims to help gifted children from the peasant class receive a secondary, higher, general and special education. The society has already begun its activities, it has to deal with the selection of children, it uses the method of G.I. Rossolimo.
The third technique in the new approach to the study of questions of psychology and pedagogy is based on a combination of experiment and observation. We find it in the study of the question of personality, its properties, which G.I. Rossolimo tried to solve it strictly experimentally.
To conduct such research, it is very important, first of all, to understand the methods leading to the solution of the problem, to collect and indicate the most expedient among them and to test them in practice. Such a work was carried out by a group of employees of the laboratory of experimental pedagogical psychology in Petrograd, and then processed and presented by one of the members of this circle, Mr. Rumyantsev. The circle set out to indicate the simplest methods that do not require the use of sophisticated equipment, and at the same time the most reliable. Noting the main precautions when performing experiments, the circle described the methods for studying sensations, perception, and memorization. For more complex mental phenomena - processes of judgment, imagination, manifestations of feelings and will - it was more difficult to indicate methods than for simple phenomena, since they are less amenable to experimentation, but some indications are given in this area.
A similar methodological significance is drawn up by F.E. Rybakov "Atlas for the experimental psychological study of personality" (M., 1910), the purpose of which is to provide an opportunity for "teachers, doctors and people in general who have contact with someone else's soul, without the help of any tools to explore the features of the mental life of the chosen person", moreover, they mean predominantly manifestations of higher processes. The atlas contains many tables (57) for examining the ability to perceive attention, observation, memory, suggestibility, fantasy, etc., comments on research methods, description and explanation of the tables.
The actual study of personality in a new way was carried out by a group of people working under the guidance of A.F. Lazursky. This study is interesting not so much from the side of results, but from the side of the method. It was carried out in a double way: by careful observation of selected personalities and experiments on them. Observations were carried out on the cadets of the 2nd St. Petersburg Cadet Corps (11 people). Age observed - 12-15 years. Observations were made by the educators of the corps, in front of whom the whole life of the pupils passed. Day after day, a diary was kept about the pupils chosen for observation for about a month and a half, and a certain, pre-developed research program was taken as the basis, and observations were recorded with all possible objectivity and at the same time with all the accompanying circumstances, often of great importance. for the analysis and evaluation of individual manifestations of personality. After a month and a half, keeping a diary was stopped, and only from time to time any outstanding facts were recorded, especially brightly illuminating one or another side of the spiritual life of the observed person. After some time, additional information about what was already observed from memory was collected and recorded: in accordance with the program, various sections were discussed - about sensations, associations, memory - and the data of the diary were supplemented with recalled facts, in the reliability of which the reporter was sure that memory does not deceive him. When all the material was collected, a characteristic of this person was compiled.
Many zealous and ardent experimenters are distrustful and even contemptuous not only of self-observation, but also of psychological observations, trusting only experiment, tables, curves, arithmetic mean. The work mentioned above was carried out under the pressure of a different view: the researchers had a high opinion about the characteristics compiled by the described method and about all the material obtained, they were convinced that the collected material "has no less degree of reliability than the results of an experimental study," which is even possible, permissible " test the experiment by observation. The study is cautious, well-grounded, its methodology, in general, is absolutely correct, although critical remarks can be made about some particulars about the observations made, not in their favor.
As for the actual experiments, the researchers used the following:
1) setting dots on white paper;
2) counting out loud;
3) choosing a letter from the printed text;
4) memorizing a poem;
5) composing phrases from several given words.
Obviously, the experiments are distinguished by great simplicity and applicability, and do not require special special skills on the part of the testers. At the same time, they touched on very different aspects of mental life: speed and coordination of movements, mental performance, the activity of attention, memory, etc. It turned out that in some cases the results of the experiments largely coincided with observational data, while in others the coincidences did not was. A more detailed analysis of the data obtained showed that the experiments dealt with several other aspects of mental activity than those that were meant at the beginning, during the observations. On the other hand, the experiments singled out and emphasized with particular clarity such features of the mental life of the subjects, concerning which educational diaries and additional information could only provide general, more or less summary data. In the end, the researchers came to the conclusion "of the need for both experimental methods and a method of systematic external observation."
By this method - a combination of experiments with observation - many private studies were carried out on certain issues of psychology and pedagogy, such as the development of memory, its types, the susceptibility to suggestion depending on its form and the age of the subject, the tediousness of various educational subjects, mental performance at various times of the day. Between these particular questions, the attention of Russian researchers was attracted by a very interesting and important question about the peculiarities of the mental work of men and women. This problem was studied in relation to elementary school children, adults, students and female students.
Children aged 11-12 who studied in Petrograd city schools were examined. The children under study (not more than 20 per classroom department) were interviewed together, at once, in the classroom, for which they were selected according to age, the social environment to which they belonged, and generally equalized as much as possible. There were equal numbers of boys and girls in each class department surveyed. Muscular strength, active attention, speed of mental processes, memorization, judgment, associative processes and creativity were tested. Most of the experiments were repeated five times. The results are as follows:
1) in terms of muscular strength (squeezing the dynamometer with the right and left hands), boys, as expected, are superior to girls, as well as
2) in active attention. The last test was to find and cross out one or two badges from eight different ones. A total of 1600 icons were printed on 40 lines. The difference between the icons was only in the direction of a small additional dash. On average, one girl scanned 96.8 lines in 50 minutes and made 37.8 skips. One boy scanned 97 lines in the same time and allowed 25.4 gaps. If we take the average number of skips for a boy as 100, then the girl will have 148 of them. "The speed of work for both (that is, for boys and girls) is the same."
In the speed of mental processes, girls overtake boys without compromising the quality of work. "Characteristically, something of the same phenomenon is noted in the group of younger children, in whom the superiority of the work of girls over the work of boys is also expressed." This conclusion seems to us not entirely consistent with the previous one: in order to quickly and correctly perform additions and subtractions of numbers (57 + 28 \u003d ? or 82-48 \u003d ?, etc.), active attention, strong-willed effort was necessary. And the previous result indicates its relative weakness in girls compared to boys. At the same time, the third result indicates a higher speed of mental processes in girls compared to boys, and the conclusion on the second question states the same speed of work for both. 4) Girls remember better than boys (slightly better: out of 10 two-digit numbers, boys remember on average 4.45, and girls 5.0) and 6) In the formulation of judgments, in associative processes and creativity, boys overtake girls, with the exception of associations with symbols like letters where girls take precedence over boys. From his research, which, of course, requires verification and testifies to the physical and mental differences between boys and girls, the author drew a conclusion about the benefits and desirability of co-education. This last question requires a broad and detailed study in order to be properly answered.
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