On May 18, within the framework of the international exhibition ARCH Moscow-2018, a panel discussion "Development of public spaces: global and local trends" was held, organized by the ICU "City" in collaboration with the company "Ilya Mochalov and Partners". How to competently renovate the surrounding world for a comfortable human life, what technical innovative solutions can be used to improve the urban process, what is the essence of the modern approach to creating public spaces - these and other issues were discussed by experts in the field of architecture, transport, public communications.
The first part of the program "Public Spaces as a Driver for the Development of Urban Areas" was devoted to new territories, for the development of which various modern approaches and technologies are used. Head of the Urban Development Department of the A101 Group of Companies Svetlana Afonina spoke about the formation of new districts of Moscow from the developer's point of view. She noted that the task of their company is, first of all, to create the so-called post-industrial environment 2.0, which involves building a city for everyone: for the disabled, children, families, teenagers. And everyone should find their territory in this city, their public spaces to realize their potential.
Vice President, Director for Urban Environment Development, Skolkovo Foundation Elena Zelentsova, made a presentation "Economics of the Outskirts: Capitalization of Public Spaces through the Cultural Capital of Districts". She once again recalled the importance of cultural tradition, which must be studied and taken into account when working on socially significant objects.
In the second part of the discussion, devoted to the expectations and requests of citizens in the field of development of public spaces, the head of the department for work with public authorities of the Department of Socio-Political Research of the VTsIOM made presentations Kirill Rodin, Deputy Director for External Communications of JSC "Mosinzhproekt" and the main ideologist of the projects of the ICU "City" Alexey Raskhodchikov; head of the AVTV architectural bureau, chief architect of the Moscow Ring Railway Timur Bashkaev and Vice President of the Union of Moscow Architects, General Director of Yauzaproekt LLC Ilya Zalivukhin. The speakers were unanimous that a competent approach to the creation of public spaces requires a clear understanding of where the vector of citizens' request is directed today and who is the subject of this request. As Kirill Rodin notes, presenting the results of the latest VTsIOM study on this topic, the vector in terms of pastime of Muscovites is focused on the places of their direct residence. That is, Muscovites prefer not to get to public spaces themselves, but broadcast a request that public spaces gradually come to people's places of residence. At the same time, there is actually no common global subject of the request, some kind of “global Muscovite”, there are separate groups of people with their own requests that require study.
According to Aleksey Raskhodchikov, the approach to the study of individual subjects or communities should be predominantly multifunctional: the needs of different social groups vary greatly, and it is simply impossible to create a universal system of public spaces that will always work. Therefore, before designing and building any kind of spaces or objects, it is essential to investigate the consumer of these public spaces. The developed model of social diagnostics includes several points: diagnostic studies, analysis of activity in social networks, organization of communication platforms, support for feedback and monitoring of changes.
Ilya Zalivukhin also supports this approach to the formation of public spaces: “The main thing in the city is, first of all, people. When creating centers of attraction, it is necessary to be based on the preferences and expectations of city residents, each urban area has its own characteristics, new spaces must be harmoniously integrated into the fabric of the city.”
Timur Bashkaev also stressed that our needs today are developing at a tremendous speed: “A two-dimensional city can no longer satisfy all the growing needs of all citizens. This model has run its course. We need to look for new models of the vertical city, where every need will be given space for development.”
Particular attention in the third part of the program "Modern Trends and New Formats of Public Spaces" was given to the unique project of the Zaryadye Park.
“Today, Zaryadye in the global trend line acts as a global showcase that shows the heritage of the country, our geographical diversity, our cultural context,” says the director of Zaryadye Park. Pavel Trekhleb. - And at the same time, this is a place for recreation, where you can just come, hide from the metropolis in a coniferous forest, and restore your strength. You can enjoy new panoramas from the floating bridge, which reopens the historical center, views of the Kremlin, Stalin's skyscrapers, and the City. This is a project that works for different audiences.”
“Many investors in Russia now do not understand that public space of a certain level is a very expensive pleasure. This is about one billion rubles per hectare, if we talk about the Zaryadye park-level project,” the landscape architect notes. Ilya Mochalov. It must be borne in mind, the expert emphasized, that any even more or less high-quality improvement cannot cost less than one hundred million rubles per hectare, otherwise we will get just a house adjoining territory, and not a public space. Therefore, each investor must clearly understand how much he is willing to invest in this project in order to get a really worthy place in terms of level. But public spaces are more than just costs. Parks can be not only "roads", but also beneficial from an economic point of view. Public spaces are the points of application of labor for small businesses and the development of the service sector, as well as the center of attraction for tourists.
The participants of the discussion noted that over the past few years, a revolutionary modernization of public spaces has been taking place in Moscow, their new infrastructure is being formed. Public spaces form the image of the city, directly affect the level of comfort of the urban environment and the quality of life of residents. Modern trends in the development of the urban environment show that the city strives for a variety of forms and concepts, but it is necessary to approach the design of public spaces based on the historical and cultural characteristics of each district, as well as the social composition and preferences of its inhabitants.
Photos from the event
At the present stage of development of the Russian Federation, there is a tendency for the outflow of people from smaller cities to large metropolitan areas, and the demographic situation is changing.In cities, it is the citizens who are the main producer of the urban economy. If municipalities do not see people as their most important asset, then cities will find themselves in a dead end. Today, local residents generate 25 percent or more of the city's income in the form of personal income tax, that is, a quarter of the city's budget is formed from taxes that the city receives from residents. In business, for example, if one customer brings in a quarter of the revenue, then the company will do everything to please him. And our cities often treat residents and their needs as a burden.
In the conditions of competition between cities for a “person”, the role of public spaces as a factor in a comfortable environment is growing.
To form an idea of the potential of using public spaces as a competitive advantage for cities, it is first necessary to form an idea of the meaning of this concept, its types and functions.
A single concept of public spaces has not yet been formed today. Architects pay attention to public space, geographers consider space as a whole, sociologists talk about social space, the concept of “places of public use” and “public places” is found in legal acts.
The first thing I would like to pay attention to when studying public spaces is that they occupy a certain physical territory. According to Russian experts, public (or public) spaces are an indispensable condition for the existence of a city. So, V.L. Glazychev singles out the obligatory presence of "a significant number of people (in public spaces) who are not engaged in industrial activities" as one of two signs of urban existence. If the public space is empty, then there is no center of gravity, therefore, there is no urban community, which means that we have a settlement, agglomeration, settlement, but not a city. Using the scientific classification: “pre-city”, “city”, “non-city” and “non-city”, - V.L. Glazychev shows that public spaces are not possible in the suburbs, since there is no free space and people unemployed in production; spaces exist.
We can assume that public space means a certain urban area that has developed due to historical, cultural, social and other features, created for public use.
Examples of public spaces are areas available for public use: parks, squares, squares, pavements, embankments, sidewalks, recreation areas in shopping and business centers, playgrounds, stadiums, courtyards. In public spaces, services can be provided, both on a commercial and gratuitous basis (holding cultural, sports, leisure, political and other events for certain groups of citizens and the population as a whole). Public spaces are created on the initiative of both the state to improve the quality of life of citizens, and on the initiative of private companies in their personal interests, including to regulate the behavior of consumers, as well as the citizens themselves through their joint efforts. A characteristic feature of public space is its accessibility, that is, public spaces have such properties of a public good as non-rivalry and non-excludability. Non-rivalry implies that the presence of one individual in a park or waterfront does not diminish the possibility of another individual being there as well. Non-excludability is expressed in “the technical impossibility or prohibitively high costs of preventing additional consumers from accessing the good. Goods that have both properties to a high degree are called pure public goods. L.I. Jacobson distinguishes national and local public goods: "... the difference is determined by the difference in the territorial coverage of the useful action of a particular good" .
The definition of "place of public use" is also ambiguous. In legal acts, it is found in the International Convention for the Suppression of Terrorist Bombings. According to part 5 of Art. 1 of this Convention, "places of public use" means those parts of any building, land, street, waterway or other place which is accessible or open to the public, whether permanently, periodically or from time to time, and includes any commercial, business, a cultural, historical, educational, religious, governmental, entertainment, recreational or similar facility that is thus accessible or open to the public.
It should be noted that there is no definition of the concepts "public space" and "public place" in Russian legislation. Based on Part 1 and Part 2 of Art. 20.20 of the Code of Administrative Offenses of the Russian Federation, public places include: children's, educational and medical organizations, all types of public transport (public transport) of urban and suburban communication, cultural organizations, sports and recreational and sports facilities, as well as streets, stadiums, squares, parks. Thus, according to the law in the Russian Federation, public places are organizations providing social services to the population, transport and recreational areas, while in the international community such places include those territories and objects whose main features are their openness and accessibility to the population.
Thus, there is an understanding of public space as a territory, the main feature of which is its accessibility to the population, regardless of their age, nationality, racial and other characteristics. This understanding explains why the definition of a place of public use by the International Convention is included in the concept of public space, but is not limited to it.
Public space is also a place of socialization, a place of gathering of citizens, that is, it includes the concept of "social space". In the work "Theoretical foundations of the sociology of space" A.F. Filippov presents the position of the German sociologist Georg Simmel, according to which space is also a kind of “piece of soil” inhabited by people, filled with their interaction and practical activities that require it, and a unique, exclusive location for certain social formations. A.F. Filippov concludes that "the meaning of territory, border, stay, place is found in the practice of social life." In other words, the social interactions of citizens form certain spaces (social), but when they are tied to the territory, public spaces are formed.
Taking into account the trend of the predominant growth of the urban population over the rural population, the deterioration of the environmental situation in cities, not only the quantity, but also the quality of public spaces, places where a person can spend time, excluding office and home, becomes an important indicator of human life.
The social significance of public spaces includes:
Balanced development of territories;
Improving health and increasing life expectancy;
Increasing the level of physical culture;
Environmental and physical safety;
Socialization.
Public space, in addition to performing social functions, is also a living economic capital, which is very important for the city.
The impact of public spaces on the city budget can be characterized by the following effects:
Increasing the value of land and real estate;
Rising rental rates for commercial real estate;
Increasing the number of enterprises in the field of trade and services;
Increasing tourism attractiveness.
Budget revenues of the municipality can increase due to the organization of public spaces for the following types of income: personal income tax, UTII, UAT, patents, property tax of individuals, land tax, income from the use of state and municipal property, income from the sale of material and intangible assets. It should be noted that this is practically the entire list of local budget revenues established by the Tax Code of the Russian Federation, as well as the Budget Code of the Russian Federation.
If there is a public space, then there is also a private space. Private space has owners who pay land and property taxes. If public spaces are improved, the value of their real estate increases. Therefore, residents of apartments around Central Park in New York are happy to chip in for the improvement of the park - this raises the capitalization of their real estate (Figure 1). According to analysts, the economic value of the High Line Park in New York (Figure 2) can be estimated as an increase in rental income in neighboring properties by more than 25%. Similarly, business owners on the first floors. A well-groomed space creates more foot traffic, more visitors go to them, they make more profit, they pay more income taxes, they hire more employees who pay their income taxes.
Figure 1. Central Park in New York
Figure 2. High Line Park in New York
According to Moscow Mayor Sergei Sobyanin, as a result of the increase in tourist flow and the flow associated with event events, additional budget revenues from the implementation of the My Street program in 2017 amounted to about 62 billion rubles, and in 2018 will reach the level of 80 billion rubles. At the same time, in 2015-2017, the costs of the program amounted to more than 93 billion rubles. Thus, capital expenditures that are made not for one year, but for 20-30 years, pay off within one year, and subsequent years give a net income to the budget (Figure 3, Figure 4).
Figure 3. Valovaya Street in Moscow before reconstruction under the My Street program
Figure 4. Valovaya Street in Moscow after reconstruction under the My Street program
Each street after reconstruction is capitalized. The cost of real estate, apartments grows in different proportions up to 20 - 30%. The number of pedestrians on these streets tends to increase three to six times. The turnover of restaurants and cafes is increasing. When public spaces are reconstructed, they become safe, beautiful, illuminated, cultural events begin to actively appear there: festivals, concerts, various events that generate additional flow.
Rental rates on the well-maintained streets of Moscow increased by 10-50%. In addition, instead of banks and offices, there are points of public catering and various services. At the same time, it is important to observe the proportion of interests of tenants and landlords, since in the event of a significant increase in rent, small businesses will not be able to compete with network and large businesses.
In addition, the concept of moving citizens has recently changed. According to recent studies, if earlier the majority preferred a car, now citizens choose walking routes, bicycles or public transport.
Walkable cities have a 38% higher GDP per capita than the rest, attracting more people with higher education and thus better ensuring social equity. This is due to the fact that residents have significantly reduced travel costs and, at the same time, housing costs are offset by proximity to the most relevant jobs.
In 2016, a study was conducted in the United States, the results of which led to the conclusion that for the first time in 60 years, pedestrian spaces occupy a larger share of the market compared to transportation areas. In 30 megacities, 619 pedestrian zones were assessed, which, however, represent only 1% of the total urban space. Provided that the population of these 30 cities is 46% of the total US population and at the same time generates 54% of the national GDP. The study showed that the development of pedestrian urban areas contributes to the revitalization of the business center of the city and more efficient urbanization of suburban areas.
Thus, the creation of a comfortable environment through the formation of urban public space, of course, is a benefit for the municipal budget.
However, today there are a number of problems associated with the need for reconstruction and management of public spaces, which prevent obtaining a positive budgetary effect. These include:
Low level of improvement of public spaces: lighting, unsuitability for different groups of citizens - disabled people, children in wheelchairs, athletes (cyclists, roller skaters);
The problem of safety in public spaces;
The minimum range of recreational and related services;
Lack of event content of public spaces;
Lack of consideration of the needs of the population and guests of the city;
Insufficient number of streets and squares with pedestrian priority;
Inefficient use of the recreational potential of embankments.
Unfortunately, in most cases, we have to state the fact that the local administration, not understanding the high social significance of public spaces for citizens, not seeing opportunities to replenish the budget through due attention to the quality organization and effective management of public spaces, does not consider this element of a comfortable environment as an important issue requiring a systematic approach in the organization.
One of the main reasons limiting the actions of local governments in the creation and management of public spaces is the limited budgetary resources under the “Improvement” budget expenditure item.
At the same time, I would like to note that the limited budgetary resources do not mean their complete absence. Of course, the share of budget expenditures in municipal budgets in this area is modest in comparison with other items of expenditure and averages about 2.5–3%, but having the opportunity to dispose of an amount of 500–600 million rubles, much depends on the adoption of sound effective decisions by the administrative resource.
In addition, the involvement of private investors, philanthropists and residents of the city in the process makes it possible to compensate for the missing financial resources for the implementation of projects to create public spaces.
New York has Zuccotti Park (Figure 5). John Zuccotti was the legendary chairman of the New York City planning committee, real estate company owner, real estate developer. His company owns some of the buildings around the park and the park itself. He was often asked the question - why did he not build up this park, but spent about 8 million dollars on its re-design. Zukotti's arguments are that if he built up the park, the total amount of financial flow would be much less. This “emptiness” here turns out to be the most important part of its economic capital. The private space he made public shows how important landscaping is to the real estate around. And the fact that a space is private does not make it non-public. Occupy Wall Street activists occupied Zukotti Park, since public parks close at 11 or 12 at night, and a private park does not have such regulations.
Civil protest actions in New York City beginning September 17, 2011. The goal of the action participants is a long-term seizure of Wall Street in the financial center of New York in order to draw public attention to the "crimes of the financial elite" and call for structural changes in the economy.
Figure 5. Zucotti Park in New York
Companies “originally” from Chicago are investing in the development of the same parks and other public places, although the authorities do not give them the right to build an elite residential complex nearby, as is happening in Moscow. For them, this is precisely a gesture of goodwill towards their city. The most famous example is Millennium Park in downtown Chicago (Figure 6). Construction was carried out for eight years instead of the planned four, the budget exceeded the original one by 3 times and reached almost $0.5 billion. But the park has become a landmark not only of the city, but also of the country.
Figure 6. Millennium Park in Chicago
But there are examples when the transformation of isolated territories into public ones took place without the participation of the state or municipality. In one of the districts of Berlin, the Rotaprint factory (8300 sq. M), which produced printing machines, went bankrupt. It was located in a building - a monument of constructivism, built by the architect Klaus Kirsten in 1959-1870. This unusual structure, as if assembled from concrete boxes, has already been dubbed Betonbaby by the media. The stray factory was put up for auction in 1989, and several unsuccessful attempts were made to sell it. Since 2001, the factory site has been managed by the Berlin Real Estate Fund. The object was again put up for auction in a package with other property.
And then the public took the stage. “We wanted to be seen as an investor,” says Daniela Brahm, artist, co-designer of the factory transformation. In 2005, together with other tenants, she created the Ex-Rotaprint association in order to obtain a hereditary lease on the territory of the factory and save it from destruction (Figure 7). Usually vacant industrial premises attract artists with low rents, then galleries and high-end stores, and then construction investors come in who turn popular places into high-end residential areas. In the case of Ex-Rotaprint, other potential investors were not active in the area, “which gave us time to develop an alternative (reorganization) program,” Brahm says, “our goal was to preserve the site and support art and culture.” Profit was not supposed to be earned initially. Now 10,000 sq. m of factory space are being developed autonomously, without the help of the government, at the expense of tenants. In total, there are 11 buildings on the territory, about 90 lease contracts have been concluded.
Ex-Rotaprint occupies a third of all premises, the remaining ones were divided among themselves by local public institutions and tenant companies. There are tutoring sessions with schoolchildren, workshops, etc. “This kind of community creates new partnerships, connections and relationships. Social capital is being created here, which has important implications for the city,” says Brahm.
Figure 7. Creative cluster and social center "Ex-Rotaprint" in Berlin
Examples of financing mechanisms for projects to create public spaces, improve the urban environment in order to create comfortable conditions for citizens are presented in the table below (Table 1) .
Table 1. Mechanisms for financing projects for the creation of public spaces, improvement of the urban environment
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Melbourne |
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The budget for capital projects lasting several years is determined by the management team. Funding comes from the city's capital budget and/or the national budget. The budget for smaller projects is determined by the beautification coordinating committee and funded from Melbourne's capital budget. Routine repairs are financed from the city hall's current budget. |
Projects are financed from the budget of the district mayor's office or the mayor's office of Paris. If the district mayor's office does not have sufficient funds, additional sources of funding are sought - for example, through targeted programs |
Funding for improvement projects is carried out mainly from the city budget. Major projects may be subsidized from the national and state budgets. The costs of minor reconstruction of the street and road space are sometimes borne by small entrepreneurs. |
Road improvement projects can be subsidized from public funds (national, city budget or district councils) and from private investors. One of the features of the process of improvement in London is the widespread attraction of private investment. Here, the mechanism of public-private partnership is applied - there is a fee scheme for the infrastructure improvement of the area at the expense of the developer. The fee depends on the size and type of new development. The purpose of spending is determined after careful consultation with the local population and public hearings, for example, funds can be used to build affordable housing and the infrastructure needed by the local community |
Large-scale urban improvement projects, as a rule, are financed by budgets and/or budget programs of various levels. Various public-private partnership schemes can be used. In the case of small projects, both public funds and exclusively private funds or a combination of both (PPP) are used. A common case of using private capital is the so-called Business Improvement Areas, which receive preferences when investing in projects for the improvement, repair or construction of walls, and improving the appearance of the facades of commercial real estate. There are 81 such zones in Toronto. |
There are several models for the development of projects to create public spaces:
concession agreements;
Rent or management;
Development;
Business associations for the development of territories;
city initiative.
It should be noted that regardless of who will act as an ideological inspirer, investor, executor of local transformations in the form of the formation of public spaces, it is important to be able to rely on a formulated vision of how the city will develop. Such a vision could be, for example, a master plan together with concepts of spatial development, urban zoning or a city master plan.
The sequence of actions of local authorities to ensure the legal framework for the formation of public spaces should be as follows:
1) development on the basis of the master plan of documentation for the planning of public areas;
2) inclusion of the entire set of objects in the register of municipal property;
3) development of rules for land use and building and improvement rules in conjunction with cartographic materials;
4) adoption of a municipal program for the improvement of public areas;
5) consistent implementation of the program.
The man of the new millennium wants to live in an environment saturated with aesthetically complete, truthful images. The human right to beauty and truth has not yet been written down in any constitution, but it is this right that constitutes the content of the current stage of the development of society, and it is this right that constitutes the subject and goal of modern urban planning. At the same time, it is important to understand that the implementation of this right is not a single game, but a team game, that is, each participant in the process of creating a comfortable urban environment (local governments, the business community, civil society) must understand, evaluate the potential benefits, and be ready to engage in dialogue , find optimal solutions and take responsibility for the transformation of the territory.
Bibliographic list
- Glazychev V.L. Political economy of the city: a textbook. - M .: Publishing house "Delo" ANKh, 2009. - 192 p. – (Ser. “Educational Investments”).
- Yakobson L.I. The public sector of the economy: economic theory and policy: A textbook for universities / European Commission of the EU (Tacis). - M.: GU HSE, 2000. - 367 p.
- International Convention for the Suppression of Terrorist Bombings (New York, December 15, 1997) (The Russian Federation ratified the Convention by Federal Law No. 19-FZ of February 13, 2001, entered into force for the Russian Federation on June 7, 2001).
- Code of the Russian Federation on Administrative Offenses dated December 30, 2001 No. 195-FZ.
- Abstract of the dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Sciences: Filippov A.F. Theoretical foundations of the sociology of space. 2003.
- An A.L. The role of public spaces in municipalities // Issues of state and municipal management. 2012. No. 1. pp. 174 - 184. [Electronic resource] // Official site of the magazine STRELKA. (accessed 03/12/2018).
- Beregovskikh A.N. The formula of love for cities or the economy of beauty // Urban planning and management, environmental quality and business climate: materials of the V scientific and technical conference of the Institute of Territorial Planning "Grad" (Omsk, March 1 - 3, 2015) / ch. ed. A.N. Beregovskikh, responsible ed. G.V. Gornov. - Omsk, 2016. - 198 p.
Definition
Space(from Latin spatum) is an extension that contains existing matter, the part that occupies the sensitive object and the capacity of the landscape. The term, in any case, has many other meanings.
Urban, on the other hand, we can say that it also has its etymological origin in Latin, since it comes from the term "urbs", which can be translated as "city". It refers to what belongs city or refers to it (an area with a high population density, whose inhabitants are not usually involved in agriculture). Although there is no single definition, a city is generally considered to be an agglomeration of more than 5,000 inhabitants, with less than 25% of the inhabitants involved in agriculture.
Thus, is the center of population and the landscape of cities. This term is often used as a synonym urban or urban area .
As in the definition of the city, there is no precise and unambiguous meaning of urban space. Usually certain numerical criteria are used (for example, an urban space can be an area with more than 10,000 inhabitants), although it is also possible that the distinction is made according to functional criteria (a large part of the population dedicates to tasks, not -agrícolas).
Therefore, it can be said that the characteristics of the urban space are a large number of inhabitants with a high population density, the presence of a variety of infrastructures and the development of the secondary and tertiary sectors of the economy.
In addition to all these factors, in order to qualify a space as an urban space, it should be taken into account that it has a high price for land, which has a large commercial activity, reflected in many enterprises, which is important for a historical level that develops significant administrative functions or even serves as the capital of a province or municipality, for example.
However, we cannot ignore other distinctive features of so-called urban spaces or cities:
There is massification.
Their inhabitants are subjected to a significant level of stress as they rush to spend the day from here to there.
There is a noticeable anonymity of citizens precisely because of the fact that there is a large population.
Equally important, there is great multiculturalism and diversity in any urban space, which, among other things, allows the coexistence of different urban tribes and people from countries around the world.
Its inhabitants enjoy a wide variety of entertainment and leisure activities.
In the most negative aspect, it is necessary to emphasize the fact that there is a high level of pollution, as well as a high percentage of people in situations of social exclusion. All this without forgetting the numerous traffic jams that occur every day, or the need to stand in line to use different types of services.
The growth of cities, however, makes it very difficult to establish a geographic boundary or separation between urban space and rural space, because urban periphery tends to expand more and more.
scaffolding
Scaffolding is called a series of scaffolding. Scaffolding, on the other hand, is a structure made up of tables placed horizontally for a person to climb onto and perform work at a height or get a better look at something. Forests is a word that has an etymological origin in Latin. Specifically, it comes from the sum of the verb "ambulare", which can be translated as "walking", and the suffix "-amio", which is used to
definition
skill
The ability to hit a target or get hit is called tino. For example: "The company once again demonstrated its wisdom with a new brand of cookies that became successful in sales", "You have three shells and you need to break three cans: let's see if you have ...", "With the help of this the economic measure of the Tino government is obvious." The ability to reason and judge a person also receives the name Tino. In this case, the concept is associated with the ability of the subject to act once
definition
psychopathology
This is known as psychopathology in the discipline that analyzes the motives and characteristics of mental illness. This research can be carried out using several approaches or models, among which are biomedical, psychodynamic, sociobiological and behavioral. According to the psychodynamic model, to give an example, psychological processes are the main cause of mental disorders and psychosomatic profile. A biomedical perspective treats mental disorders like any other kind of illness.
definition
excavation
The Latin word excatio came to the Castilians as an excavation. The concept refers to the act and result of digging: creating a hole, pothole, pit, or ditch. This action involves extracting a material or part of a mass of a solid body, removing it from where it was. For example: "The judge ordered an excavation in the garden of the house to try to find the remains of the victim", "Researchers have proposed new excavations in the region, as more okame may be buried
Yu.A. Perelygin(National Guild of Urban Planners)
urban space
The urban environment is a collection of many objects that form a space and relationships within this space. The urban environment affects not only the daily behavior and attitude of citizens, but also the fundamental processes of the formation of civil society.
Development in relation to the urban environment is by no means identical with the construction of pompous buildings of glass and concrete. The city is a complex organism, which is influenced by the political and socio-economic environment. Looking at the architecture of a particular settlement, one can understand what processes took place within its economic and social life, what events were the most significant.
The solution of issues of creating an environment that is optimal for living, recreation, and leisure in our country is hampered by several interrelated factors. The first of these is outdated city master plans.
An ordinary person lives on a scale of 1:1, perceives at best on a scale of 1:500, and the general plan is carried out on a scale of 1:10,000. Figuratively speaking, this is what a designer would see if he rose 3,000 meters above the city. the urban planner must think on such a scale. The master plan is a very complex document that only a competent architect can work with. Unfortunately, there are not many such specialists in the country. For 20 years we have lost the town-planning workshop. Therefore, accessible versions of the master plan and educational programs for city managers are needed.
It should be understood that today it is the city that dictates what type of production and where to be located. The cost of territory (and not land!) plays a key role in what type of business activity can and should be located in the urban space. Thus, an underground passage in the center of the capital creates more jobs than a modern assembly plant.
An underestimated phenomenon is still the agglomeration, which, according to urban planners and experts, is capable of turning several backward cities into a modern developed metropolis. In agglomerations, there is a special way of organizing economic activity due to the diversity of the economic component and the synergy of urban space. In an agglomeration, the sector of economic activity dominated by liberalism is at its maximum. Economic agents are less dependent on the arbitrariness of stronger colleagues, the arbitrariness of power at any level, the arbitrariness of crime. A small or large city with a monostructure of the economy does not give the freedom that can be obtained in an agglomeration where the diversity of urban space coincides (or exceeds) with the diversity of forms of entrepreneurial activity and forms of social mobility.
For the development of the urban environment, among other things, it is necessary to improve legislation in the field of protection of architectural monuments and change their status in connection with the reconstruction. Federal legislation in this respect is imperfect. For example, the issue of legal registration of the transfer of architectural monuments from place to place has not yet been resolved. To obtain permission to transfer, you need a decree of the Government of the Russian Federation. In a good way, such decisions should be made at the local level, if the monument has a regional status, or at the Ministry of Culture of Russia, if the monument has a federal status.
Breathing new life into an old form is a complex urban planning and architectural task. On the one hand, there must be a desire to preserve the historically valuable, on the other hand, one cannot be conservative enough to prevent the development of the new. This legal unsettledness creates problems for many Siberian cities where the war did not reach. It is there that 100-200-year-old wooden houses, numbering in the thousands, "lock" the development of the territories. And you can't transfer them.
Irkutsk: master plan and problems of the city
Let's take Irkutsk as an example. In the reference book of 1939, it is characterized as follows: the population is less than 200 thousand people, the permafrost zone, high seismicity. Including nearby cities, there are now almost a million inhabitants. This is the only city in Eastern Siberia with such growth rates. Outskirts, industrial zones developed, and the center remained in Irkutsk. Another thing is that over the past 70 years he has received little investment. If we fix this, then Irkutsk will catch up with the western territories.
In the last ten years, the main sources of space development in Russian cities have been investments in commercial real estate - retail facilities, office centers, warehouse complexes, housing. At the same time, the formation of urban areas given at the mercy of business has led to the virtual exclusion of spaces for self-expression, free communication of people. The ongoing projects exploited existing public spaces and did not create new ones. Gradually, there was a shortage of comfortable zones for citizens both in the central and outlying areas of the city.
The post-crisis stage of development will be characterized by the entry into the labor, real estate, and services markets of a generation of city dwellers born in the 1980s–2000s, who have a new system of values. The latter will have a fairly strong impact on consumer preferences. For example, in large cities, a significant part of the population is made up of students (more than 12 thousand people in Irkutsk, one in four in Tomsk), whose life strategy is based on the possibility of free self-realization in creative and intellectual activities. Therefore, urban areas should have as much space as possible for creativity and self-expression.
The general plan of the city must be accompanied by the rules of land use and development (PZZ), which translate the language of territorial planning into architectural and construction or legal norms. In other words, PZZ indicate what and within what limits can be done, and what is unacceptable. In Irkutsk, the PZZ has not yet been adopted, because of this, difficulties arise in the application of urban planning documents. After the finalization of the master plan and the preparation of the PZZ, the system of documents will work properly.
Irkutsk still belongs to the category of cities that are losing population. Therefore, speaking about the modernization of the urban environment, we mean the creation of such conditions from which a person does not want to leave.
Presentation of the 130th quarter
An illustrative example of the implementation of a new urban planning philosophy that forms a modern comfortable urban environment is the project for the restoration of the historical center of Irkutsk - the so-called 130th quarter. The idea is to create a new public space based on the architectural and historical heritage that organically complements and develops the existing city center.
The quarter should take over the functions of a cultural center. Moreover, its evolution can become an incentive for the development of neighboring cultural facilities - the Irkutsk Musical Theatre, the Exaltation of the Cross Church, the Central Park of Culture and Culture, and the library. Undoubtedly, the reconstruction of the adjacent residential development, the entrance zone to the new Angarsk bridge and other territories will be required. In this vein, the quarter will play the role of one of the main town-planning hubs of the city center along with the embankment along Gagarin Boulevard, Kirov Square and Uritsky pedestrian street.
This is a unique project, the purpose of which is to make the central part of the city, while maintaining its originality, become comfortable, attractive for the leisure of the population. As a cultural and historical heritage, which will emphasize the uniqueness of the place, restored houses - monuments of wooden architecture, as well as the ensemble of the Exaltation of the Cross Church and other monuments adjacent to the territory will act. The key point will be the layout of the quarter, which involves the placement of a number of cultural objects. The design of the environment will also help create a single space. In the quarter there will be elements of production, exhibiting, selling products - workshops and shops.
One of the universal trends in the development of modern cities is the formation of public (public) spaces - both through the efforts of city authorities and through grassroots, civil initiatives.
The process of creating and improving public space has become a kind of symbol of the return of the city to people after decades of "squeezing" pedestrians from the streets and the expansion of urban territory by cars. On the other hand, this is another way to distract us from numerous gadgets and network communication, to help return from the virtual to the real world.
The formation of open urban spaces is often a very costly and difficult task. It may require reformatting the transport scheme of the city, redevelopment of its individual parts, switching traffic flows from one street to another, elimination of traffic interchanges, etc. However, the authorities of various cities of the world are ready to bear serious expenses for the implementation of such decisions, knowing that they will not bring obvious and quick economic effect.
H Is such an effort justified? What makes public spaces so attractive?
It is customary to refer to public spaces as urban public areas free from transport - pedestrian zones, streets, squares, squares, parks, etc.
Such an “empirical”, practical approach to the concept describes public spaces as open to people, conducive to meeting and communicating with very different and unfamiliar people, demonstrating the diversity of urban life and reflecting its very essence.
Public space is a place for the activity and interest of citizens. Without losing the transit function (a person can simply pass through it), the public space opens up opportunities for action: here people linger, “hang” for a while, do something, communicate with someone, use it in one way or another. And most importantly, they come back again and again.
What makes this or that urban space public?
Full social life
Public space is, first of all, a place filled with some kind of events, interactions, activity. Its most important characteristic is what happens in it.
A wasteland or a landscaped area on which some structures, monuments or any other objects are located are equally not public spaces if there are no people there or people use this area exclusively for transit purposes and do not interact with each other in any way.
Filling the space with life is facilitated by regularly performed rituals (whether it be the “clock show” at the Old Town Hall in Prague or clerks eating sandwiches on the lawn of Piccadilly Circus in Manchester) and the development (appropriation) of the territory by certain social groups or subcultures (skaters, chess players, etc.) .
Warsaw
It is also possible to stimulate social communication in the urban space and help people stay in it through technical solutions - by installing objects or devices that involve people in various types of activity. It was this decision that was used during the recent reconstruction of Triumfalnaya Square in Moscow - a swing was installed on it, which Muscovites and guests of the capital now use with pleasure.
At the same time, it is important not only to saturate spaces with landscape design objects, but also to have social direction that determines the possibilities of using and developing this territory. The presence of sun loungers signals the opportunity to chat with friends, read a book, take a nap in the fresh air, a pond with ducks organizes children (and adults) to feed and photograph them, but the piano ...
Ghent everyday life
The space where events take place once or several times a year is not fully public, while the rest of the time there is desolation and melancholy, as, for example, on the Central Square of Kaliningrad.
A good public space is suitable not only for exclusive events such as celebrating the City Day, but - above all - for daily use, to meet the everyday needs of citizens - walks, meetings, games.
Rome Comfort
It is clear that a person's stay in any space will be the more often and longer, the more comfortable it is. We need benches to sit down to rest, greenery that allows you to hide from the heat, the opportunity to entertain children.
Therefore, the city authorities, interested in expanding the recreational opportunities of citizens, developing tourism and, especially, in strengthening the emotionally positive attitude of residents to the city, are trying to fill open spaces with original and high-quality environmental design.
Wroclaw Multifunctionality and the possibility of transformation
Attractive for a variety of people - adults and children, families and singles, the space makes it multifunctional, a variety of activities available in the area.
Brussels And since public spaces are “exploited” every day, they must have the potential to change. Their organization implies flexible solutions that make it easy to transform the structure of space, quickly (and cheaply) mount and dismantle "content". So, sun loungers, tubs with trees, a bookcase can be easily removed or moved, freeing up space for an ice rink or sandbox.
Kaliningrad, wasteland near the House of Soviets, intervention within the framework of the project of the Baltic branch of the NCCA "Artistic strategies for involving citizens in urban planning" At the same time, it is important that changes in this territory are entitled to be carried out not only by “specially trained” people from the city hall, but also by ordinary citizens who, say, take it into their heads to play petanque or fly a kite.
Proportionality to man
Not all spaces positioned as public spaces are capable of stimulating communication between people, not all can be transformed. To such sociologists Richard Sennet And Zygmunt Bauman, among other things, include the so-called "arrogant", inhospitable spaces. Spaces that are too large (or those that seem so because they are empty) cause emotional discomfort, a feeling of being lost, and an unwillingness to linger. It was precisely such squares - empty and with indispensable Lenin at the head - that were in every Soviet city.
Fundamental openness
Free access for all is an unconditional criterion of public space.
As the urbanist says Leo Hollis, “If the city does not belong to everyone, then it is of no use to anyone”.
It is noteworthy that in the official Russian lexicon, rather, the expression “open urban space” is used. However, in reality, a different practice prevails: some time after the improvement, under the plausible pretext of the need to maintain order, the territory is closed from the public - an entrance fee is introduced or visiting hours are set. Similarly, space cannot be fully used if there are any restrictions and prohibitions.
Poznan Non-hierarchical, lack of social exclusion
Inequality and stratification, characteristic of society, are also manifested in public spaces. One of the lines of their hierarchical structuring is connected with the vertical relations “power – townspeople”. It is the authorities, as a rule, who determine what can (and what cannot) be done in a particular territory - by establishing the rules for using it or through the very organization of the spatial environment. Just as the presence of the "Do not walk on the lawns" sign limits the desire to lie on the grass, the tiled surface in the park makes it difficult for roller skaters or skateboarders to use its territory.
Alas, it is still difficult for Russian local authorities to abandon the perception of public spaces as in need of control, and sometimes come to terms with the very presence of citizens in them: Kaliningraders are well aware that even a New Year's Eve at the main city Christmas tree can be considered by the authorities as a problem, and Muscovites suddenly learned that standing with easels on the Arbat is an offense.
Segregated, hierarchical relations between different groups of citizens themselves, as “us” and “strangers”, are also manifested in the public space, as in the case of the Voronezh Olympic Park, which the parents of young skiers involved in there prefer to see only as a sports base, while the rest townspeople - a park for family recreation.
The plot with Chernigovsky Lane in Moscow is also indicative, which was transformed into a kind of open-air reading room - a quiet space closed to car traffic with benches, flower beds, an amphitheater and a bookcase. Surprisingly, the residents of the surrounding houses, who dreamed of making their lane pedestrian, perceived the reconstruction negatively. Why? They did not like that the alley was no longer just "their" alley, but attracted "outsiders" people who come here to read or chat.
In modern Russia, the risks for the openness and non-hierarchization of public spaces are especially great: this is the trend of privatization and commodification, and the tradition of "fencing", and attempts by individual groups to standardize social reality at their own discretion, and, of course, the course towards curtailing political freedoms. The constitutional right to freedom of assembly is practically impossible to realize today, and the reincarnation of a pioneer from an old Soviet film strives to emerge from around the corner with the words “Are you doing someone here?”.
Public spaces are also the answer to the question “Who owns the city?”
In addition to the empirical, the concept of public space has a deep philosophical and political meaning (one of the first to discover it was a woman from Koenigsberg Hannah Arendt) and is related to the concept rights to the city, first formulated Henri Lefebvre.
We are talking about the right of residents not only to be in the city, but also to participate in decision-making that determines its future, the state of the urban environment, and, of course, to use the central and symbolically loaded parts of the city. Actually, only in the public space the right to the city can be declared and implemented.
The public right to the city is opposed to individual access to city resources, in conflict and struggle with which there is a chance to return the city. It is no coincidence that urbanists so appreciate the movements of urban activism, situations of urban conflicts, the practice of capturing ("occupation") and re-development of urban spaces by citizens, including in the forms of public art or partisanship. As the urbanist writes Peter Marcuse, "it is best to use public space illegally, moreover, it is necessary."
Barcelona Both street protests, and actions of direct action to transform the environment, and just riding on a “people's” slide, and not on a tubing track sanctioned by the authorities, fill the urban space with publicity, new meanings, and life.
Experts argue that the success of a public space is possible only if it is constructed “from below”, on the initiative of citizens and with their active participation. Local authorities can only recognize the initiative and support it financially and informationally.
But for this to happen, both we, citizens and local authorities, need to realize that public spaces are public and do not belong to any particular owner. That they can be used by everyone. That at the same time they are free for any activities that do not harm others. And that, despite the possible discomfort from such activity, we must respect the right of others to express themselves, because this guarantees the same right to ourselves.
Palanga It seems that now, when we are all so divided, and even the most insignificant reason is increasingly opposing us to each other, the development of public spaces can be a salvation. After all, they not only help to make the city human-scale, create a friendly landscape, and provide positive visual and emotional impressions. Public spaces allow you to build a dialogue, meet the human need to be together. I think it's worth believing Jan Gale who says that if we come up with good public spaces, people can feel the community.
Anna Alimpieva
