Develop, monitor and report on personal learning goals. The learning process in pedagogy, its goals and objectives The system of learning goals in pedagogy

24.11.202227.05.2017

Education as a purposeful process of transmission and assimilation of socio-cultural experience, as a specific form of relations, appeared long ago, when people began to realize the value of knowledge, the importance of continuity in its transmission and transmission to the next generations, the need and need for further knowledge of the world.

In addition, training, like education, is aimed at developing the individual. But in teaching, this orientation is realized through the organization of the assimilation of scientific knowledge and methods of activity by students.

Based on these general provisions, it is possible to single out the goals and objectives of training.

primary goal learning - maintaining social progress.

Tasks learning: the transfer and active assimilation of socio-cultural experience in the form of scientific knowledge and ways to obtain it; personal development, which, on the one hand, makes it possible to assimilate and apply the experience of previous generations, and on the other hand, forms the need and opportunity for further knowledge of the world.

These tasks are related to functions training: educational, educational and developing.

educational the function is to transfer and assimilate a system of scientific knowledge, skills, and the possibility of applying them in practice.
Educational the function is realized in the formation of students' value beliefs, personal qualities in the process of assimilation of socio-cultural experience and in the formation of motives for educational activity, which largely determine its success.
Educational the function of learning is already manifested in the very purpose of this process - the comprehensive development of the personality as an integral mental system with its intellectual, emotional-volitional and motivational-need areas.

The content of these three functions shows that modern pedagogical science considers the student not as an object of influence of the teacher, but as an active subject of the educational process, the success of which is ultimately determined by the student's attitude to learning, developed cognitive interest, the degree of awareness and independence in acquiring knowledge.

Throughout the development of pedagogical science and practice, the principles of education were formed, which served as guidelines in the organization of the educational process. To the main principles training can include:

principle developmental and educational nature of education which is aimed at the comprehensive development of the personality and individuality of the student, at the formation of not only knowledge and skills, but certain moral, intellectual and aesthetic qualities that serve as the basis for choosing life ideals and forms of social behavior;
principle scientific nature of the content and methods of the educational process reflects the relationship with modern scientific knowledge and social practice, requires that the content of education introduce students to objective scientific theories, laws, facts, reflect the current state of science;
principle systematic and consistent in mastering knowledge gives a systematic nature of educational activities, theoretical knowledge and practical skills of students, requires a logical construction of both the content and the learning process;
principle consciousness, creative activity and independence of students with the leading role of the teacher reflects the need for the formation of cognitive motivation and skills of collective activity, self-control and self-esteem in students;
principle visibility means that the effectiveness of learning depends on the appropriate involvement of the senses in the perception and processing of educational material, making the transition from concrete-figurative and visual-effective thinking to abstract, verbal-logical;
principle accessibility learning requires taking into account the developmental characteristics of students, analyzing their capabilities and the zone of proximal development;
principle strength requires not only long-term memorization of knowledge, but also their internalization, the formation of a positive attitude and interest in the subject being studied, which arise during the systematic repetition of structured educational material and its verification;
principle connections between learning and life requires that the learning process stimulate students to use the acquired knowledge in solving practical problems;
principle rational combination of collective and individual forms and methods of educational work involves the use of a wide variety of forms of organization of training and extracurricular work.

All of the above principles should be considered as a single system that allows the teacher to make a scientifically based choice of goals, select the content, methods and means of organizing the educational process, create favorable conditions for the development of the student's personality.

The branch of pedagogy that develops the scientific foundations of education is called didactics. One of the topical for modern didactics is the question of the relationship between training and development. To date, three conditional groups of scientific ideas on this issue can be distinguished.

Learning is development (E. Thorndike, J. Watson, K. Koffka, W. James).
Learning follows development and must adapt to it (W. Stern: “Development creates opportunities - learning implements them”; J. Piaget: “A child’s thinking necessarily goes through all known phases and stages, regardless of whether the child is learning or not”) .
Education goes ahead of development, moving it further and causing new formations in it (L.S. Vygotsky, J. Bruner). Substantiating the thesis about the leading role of learning in personality development, Vygotsky singled out two levels of a child’s mental development: the level of actual development, which allows him to independently complete a task, and the “zone of proximal development” (what a child does today with the help of an adult, and tomorrow he will do it on his own) .

One of the defining components of the learning process is its purpose. The goal of learning is an ideal mental prediction of the end result of the learning process, this is what the teacher and students strive for. The general goal of education is determined by society. It is reflected in state documents, and then specified in the programs for individual subjects, textbooks, teaching aids for teachers, didactic materials for students. In addition to the general goal, the goals of teaching in a particular subject, the teacher defines separate tasks for each lesson.

The organization of the learning process is primarily associated with a clear definition of its goals, as well as awareness and acceptance of them by students. The target settings of learning cause students to understand the essence and methods of organizing educational and cognitive activities, significantly influencing their activation.

Both in the learning process and during each training session, three main groups of interrelated goals are implemented. The first of them includes whole educational ones: mastery of knowledge, skills, habits; to the second - developing goals: the development of the intellectual, emotional-volitional, activity-behavioral sphere of the personality, to the third - educational goals: the formation of a scientific worldview, moral, artistic, aesthetic, legal, labor, environmental culture, etc.

This means that when designing a training session, the teacher must clearly define the objectives of training, development and education. At the same time, he specifies the level at which the target settings will be implemented: general familiarization with the new topic, assimilation of the theoretical aspect of the subject being studied, the formation of practical skills, knowledge testing, etc. schoolchildren, their conscious and consistent work throughout the lesson.

The following general learning objectives in the national education system can be defined:

to form the identity of the student as a citizen of the state;

to teach students as subjects to learn effectively, to instill in them the best methods of teaching and self-learning, to form the need for constant creative self-improvement;

to equip students with the knowledge, skills and abilities that are necessary for successful professional and social activities.

create the most favorable conditions for the mental, moral, emotional and physical development of the individual, comprehensively developing his abilities, while achieving students to acquire solid knowledge, the basics of science and the ability to independently replenish them;

provide a universal education at a level that meets the rapid development of science and allows you to adapt to the modern world;

to realize the idea of general, intellectual, moral development of the personality by means of humanization of education;

to educate a highly developed citizen on the basis of universal moral values, capable of an active life, work, creativity;

follow international requirements for building programs for children with high intellectual abilities: deepening the content of programs, developing a high level of thought processes, developing an understanding of students' own abilities;

to form a personality with a developed intellect and a high level of culture, ready for a conscious choice and development of professional educational programs.

The educational process provides for close interaction between the teacher and the student. The main functions of training are educational, educational and developmental.

The educational function in traditional education is basic and involves equipping students, first of all, with a certain system of knowledge, skills and abilities.

The main disadvantage of such training is its impersonality: The traditional education system is based on a sociocentric approach, in which the goal of personality development is its socialization and professionalization from the standpoint of maximum social utility. Within the framework of this model, the ideas are realized that the main goal of education (training, teaching) is the acquisition of certain knowledge, skills and abilities, that is, externally set standards.

The humanistic paradigm of the national education system has a personal direction, and, accordingly, the student in the educational process acts as an integral person. According to the Russian psychologist V. Davydov, a person should be understood as an independent subject, as an individual who reproduces social ties and has creative opportunities for their further transformation. He emphasizes that relying on the personal qualities acquired earlier, he acts creatively (“freely”) and talentedly, creates new forms of social life. The subjectivity of the student in the educational process is substantiated by V. Rybak, G.K. Selevko.

The humanistic concept of education is holistic, i.e. devoid of the statistical, impersonal approach to the person that arises from this.

The humanistic paradigm of education united not only philosophers, but also psychologists, educators, sociologists on the paths of searching for the meaning of human existence, self-actualization, creativity, freedom of choice, integrity, integrative thinking, managing a person's own development. According to G. K. Selevko, a personal approach to students in the educational process is the core direction of progressive pedagogical technologies, which combines and embodies such educational ideas and principles:

The idea of personality development, or personal orientation of upbringing and education;

General human principles of humanism;

The idea of democratization of pedagogical relations as the basis for the formation of a democratic personality;

Deepening the individual approach;

The principle of natural conformity of education and upbringing;

The idea of activation and use of internal self-regulating mechanisms of personality development.

Therefore, now the educational function is losing its leading role, giving way to the functions of educational, developing and self-improvement. This is the demand of the day. Education, taking into account the fleeting changes, should provide the prerequisites for the learning process throughout life according to the “on-off” type.

The educational function is inseparable from the educational one and is aimed at ensuring the unity of the educational process in various educational systems, at its humanization. “Training and education are closely related to each other, complement each other, intertwine with each other,” emphasizes Academician D. Yarmachenko.

This function contributes to the formation of the main features of a citizen of the state. "A person without education is like a body without a soul" - from folk wisdom. “The humanistic orientation by no means calls into question the importance of professional knowledge, skills and abilities, but, firstly, it emphasizes their role as means, tools for realizing the orientation of the individual, and secondly, in this instrumental role, knowledge, skills and abilities are complemented by strategies for creative activity , as well as volitional qualities necessary to overcome the difficulties that stand in the way of this realization, thirdly, means that provide personal (in particular professional) self-improvement are becoming more important, ”G.A. emphasizes. Score.

I.D. Beh considers the strategic direction of education to be its personality-oriented orientation, which can "significantly humanize the educational process, fill it with high moral and spiritual experiences, establish relations of justice and respect, maximize the potential of the child, stimulate him to personally developing creativity."

The humanistic paradigm of the national education system, modern concepts of education, the processes of humanization and democratization of education also provide for the need for this function to come to the fore in the didactic process. The most important thing in the humanistic approach is the formation of not only normative knowledge among students, but, above all, the mechanisms of self-learning and self-education, taking into account the maximum involvement of the individual abilities of each student. In this regard, this function becomes the main one next to the developing one. I.D. Beh in a personality-oriented approach draws attention to helping the student as a subject of the pedagogical process to realize "... himself as a person who should become the key task of the teacher ...", G.A. A score - on "...paying the main attention to the value-motivational core of the personality, which determines its orientation, in particular professional", A. Sysoeva - on "...personal and professional growth of a person in the process of getting an education".

The developing function, especially for the spiritual, mental and physical development of the student, has a deep socio-psychological and pedagogical meaning. The meaning and purpose of education is to ensure the constant development of the student, his spiritual development, harmonization of relations with himself and others, with the social environment. Thus, education at the state level creates conditions for development and self-development, upbringing and self-education, teaching and self-learning of all and everyone.

In the process of studying various academic subjects, there is a purposeful development of the spiritual and mental abilities of students, and practical exercises, in addition, ensure the development of physical strength.

The development of the student's personality in a humane approach to the organization of the educational process should put at the center "... the development of the entire holistic set of personality traits: knowledge, skills, methods of mental actions, a self-governing mechanism of personality, the sphere of aesthetics and morality and the sphere of effective and practical". This development is the main result of education, a criterion for the quality of the work of a teacher, the head of the pedagogical system as a whole.

The function of self-improvement should ensure the constant self-education of students, self-education, the systematic formation of learning skills and abilities, as well as the motivation for educational and cognitive and future professional activities. The allocation of this function means the orientation of education to the European and world educational levels, in pedagogical theories in which special attention is paid to self-improvement, self-determination, self-realization of the individual, his achievement of success in life (self-cultivation, self-determination, self-realization, self-made) . Therefore, in Western European and American pedagogical theories, the term "personality formation" is used less and less.

I.S. Kon emphasizes that the effectiveness of specific methods of education and training should be assessed by how much they prepare the new generation for independent creative activity, set and solve new tasks that were not and could not be in the experience of previous generations.

Thus, the implementation of these four functions is a confirmation of one of the main patterns of the pedagogical process - the unity of training, education, development and self-improvement.

Thus, the functions determine the purpose of the didactic process and answer the question: “Why are students taught in various educational systems?”

The learning process is the central issue of didactics; in the process, its “actors” are reduced to a single node: the teacher and the student, their goals, as well as the content, forms, methods, means and other attributes of educational activity.

In the literature there are terms and concepts: "didactic process", "learning process". These are the so-called general concepts-synonyms. In the future, we do not subdivide them. But there is also the term "learning process", meaning learning in specific conditions, and the term "training course", meaning a single process.

The learning process is a system of successive educational actions of the teacher to achieve a cognitive result and a corresponding successive change in the mental development of the student. Education is a socio-pedagogical phenomenon. It performs the function of education, upbringing and the function of personality development. Since the process is movement, progress, the question arises about its driving forces. Prominent Soviet didactic M.A. Danilov concluded (1960) that the main driving force behind the learning process is contradictions. Other didacts (V.I. Zagvyazinsky, I.Ya. Lerner, M.N. Skatkin and others) supported this idea. Contradictions are external and internal. The first are those that arise outside the personality, although they relate to its development: between the needs of society to prepare the young generation for life and the current level of this preparation.

The recognized way of formation of knowledge, skills in a particular individual is training. It can be carried out both in the interests of mastering the content of education (i.e., in the interests of a certain system), and when teaching on individual elements of objectified experience (i.e., outside the goals and subordination to any long-term implemented system).

The definition of learning as the transfer of knowledge from teacher to student was widely used in the 60s and 70s. XX century, however, realizing that this is not the main thing, it was sometimes explained that knowledge is not an object that can simply be transferred from rue to hand. The transfer of knowledge requires the activity of the student.

In the traditional pedagogical literature of the last twenty years, learning is most often defined procedurally:

"The learning process is a purposeful, consistently changing interaction between the teacher and students, in the course of which the tasks of education, communist education and the general development of students are solved" 1 .

"Learning is a purposeful process of interaction between a teacher and students, during which the assimilation of knowledge, skills and abilities takes place, the education and development of students is carried out" .

“Learning is a purposeful pedagogical process of organizing and stimulating active educational and cognitive activity of students in mastering scientific knowledge, skills and abilities, developing creative abilities, worldview and moral and aesthetic views and beliefs” .

“Learning is communication, in the process of which controlled cognition takes place, the assimilation of socio-historical experience, reproduction, mastery of one or another specific activity that underlies the formation of personality” .

“Education is a purposeful, organized, systematic transfer to the elders and the assimilation by the younger generation of the experience of social relations, social consciousness, culture and productive labor, knowledge about active transformation and environmental protection” .

"Learning is an ordered interaction of a teacher with students, aimed at achieving the goal" .

In the light of the information about activity and activity discussed in the previous section, we formulate the following definitions.

Education- a joint activity or system of actions of the teacher and subjects of learning, aimed at mastering by the latter the elements of the objectified experience of mankind chosen by the teacher or prescribed by the program of the academic discipline.

In traditional didactics, the content of learning is usually understood as what is to be studied (educational information or the object being studied). This naturally follows from the consideration of learning as a process of information transmission, since it denotes what is transmitted in learning. This ignores that the student has to do something during the training. With the activity approach used here the content of learning is not what is transmitted, but what is done to assimilate educational information. At the same time, it is not what is transmitted that is emphasized, but what actions ensure the assimilation of the object of study.

Object of study(object under study, information under study) - a part of the content of the objectified experience of mankind, selected and prepared by the teacher for assimilation by the subject of the teaching when studying in a particular lesson.

Study Information- information describing the object of study.

Educational information is not only verbal information, but also procedural, operational information inherent in the object of study, actions and their structures that are subject to practical development.

Subject of learning- a study group together with a teacher, although the teacher (the subject of teaching) carries out teaching (the activity of managing the assimilation of selected elements of objectified experience by the subjects of learning), and the subjects of learning (pupils, students, listeners) at the same time carry out teaching (actions or activities aimed at mastering object under study).

The subject of the doctrine- the person who is doing the learning.

Recall that for any education, direct or indirect (through programs, methodological recommendations, teaching aids) participation of a teacher in learning is fundamentally necessary, it is this that introduces into the activity of the subject of learning the systematic results provided for by the chosen education. It is in the teacher's actions that a part of the objectified experience of mankind is embodied, associated with information about the processes of controlled assimilation of its elements. The subject of learning does not own this part of the objectified experience, since this requires appropriate psychological and didactic training, however, it is the introduction of the results of training by the teacher into training that makes controlled assimilation more effective and purposeful than independent.

Even independently assimilating the contents of the recommended teaching aids and thus carrying out independent work, the subject of the study participates in learning, since the teaching aids are prepared by the teacher, and even the recommended order of mastering the contents of the teaching aids is the management of mastering.

The purpose of any learning is to master the subject of learning activities of a certain type.

The above statement is a psychological position, it is borrowed from the work of N. F. Talyzina, however, for the stated private theory of learning, this statement becomes basic, since without it it is impossible to implement an activity-based approach to learning. In traditional pedagogical literature, it is usually not the purpose of education that is considered, but its functions: educational (transfer of the content of education), developing, educating.

The purpose of training- the formation in the subject of the study of the ability to carry out the mastered activity or its elements, the totality of which constitutes the ability to carry out the mastered activity:

- value orientations (knowledge and beliefs necessary to choose a way to satisfy a need);
- indicative basis of activities (knowledge, theories and patterns necessary for planning activities);
- an indicative basis for actions potentially necessary for the activity being developed;
- intellectual skills of activity planning;
- a system of actions and skills to perform the operations corresponding to them.

Learning Outcomes- changes in the psyche of the subject of the study, creating conditions for him to perform activities of a new kind for him.

The adopted formulation of the learning goal immediately determines the meaning of each particular learning outcome. The main result is the formation of skills, since it is skills that are activities, having mastered which the individual develops himself (enriching his psyche with new mental capabilities) and acquires new convictions (since the mastered activity allows him to convince himself of the validity of what he has learned).

Knowledge is of paramount importance for the development of activity, providing, first of all, erudition, without which it is impossible to form the motive of activity. The choice of the method of realization of the motive is made on the basis of legal knowledge and beliefs that make up the value orientations of the individual. For conscious planning of any activity, the subject needs knowledge of its regularities, in the indicative basis of activity. To perform an action, knowledge of the orienting basis of the action is necessary. Knowledge also contributes to the expansion of the individual's needs, what becomes necessary for him to live a full life.

Skills are necessary to perform with the required quality the operations that are part of any action, since it is the execution of operations that implements the planned activity of the individual, and beliefs provide the individual's value orientations.

“Thus, instead of two problems - to transfer knowledge and to form skills and abilities for their application - training now faces one: to form such types of activities that from the very beginning include a given system of knowledge and ensure their application within predetermined limits ...

The analysis of learning objectives should be carried out first at the macro level - an indication of all those changes that should be made to the personality of students at a given level of education or in the process of studying a given subject. After that, microanalysis is needed. When defining learning objectives at this level, the analysis should be brought to the point of specifying specific types. Recall that the necessary activity according to the structure can also be formed latently, prescribing the performance by the subject of the study of specific actions included in this activity.

Didactic task of the lesson- the goal of learning to be achieved in a particular lesson, formed in the form of results that should arise from the subject of learning after the lesson.

The need to introduce this concept is due to the fact that the ultimate goal of training - the development of a certain type of activity - most often cannot be achieved in a single lesson: first of all, it is necessary to study (or supplement in a lecture) an indicative basis (theory) for planning the activity being mastered; consider the means and methods of such activities used under various conditions; to form in a practical lesson (or in training) the necessary operational skills. To achieve the ultimate goal of learning, the subject of learning has to solve several didactic tasks, in each of which particular goals are achieved that ensure the achievement of the goal of learning.

Thus, for a particular lesson, the teacher selects the object of study, formulates the didactic task of the lesson, and develops the content of the training. The ratio of the content of training and its results is shown in fig. 17.

In the content of teaching, three most important groups of actions can be distinguished: the direction of actions of the subjects of learning (indication of the objects of study or the content of the information to be studied, sources of information, recommendations on the order and methods of study); control of the progress of the teaching (the main purpose of which is to analyze the progress of assimilation in order to assist the subjects of the teaching and correct the teaching); informing the subject of the study (direct communication to the subjects of the study of information to be assimilated, or clarification of the incomprehensible during counseling).

In higher education, the leading direction in teaching should be the direction of the subjects of learning, since students are adults who have voluntarily chosen the path of achieving a certain education and are aware of the needs that they satisfy by obtaining higher education. The noted circumstances make it possible to consider university students as subjects of activity, creating all the conditions for learning to become a genuine activity, i.e. so that it is both planned and mainly carried out by the student himself (which corresponds to the andragogical paradigm).

Rice. 17.

Depending on what structure of actions becomes leading in the activities of the teacher, one can distinguish three types of teaching, discussed in Table. 5.

Of particular importance in the actions of a teacher in managing learning is the choice of actions of the subject of learning.

Approval of the adequacy of the doctrine: for the assimilation of any object under study, it is necessary to ensure that the subject of the study performs activities or actions that are adequate to the activity embodied in this object; actions that should be taken when using this object for its intended purpose in order to realize the essential properties of this object.

Ignoring this provision can lead to obtaining completely different learning outcomes that the teacher expects. For example, the study of fiction in a general education school with an emphasis on identifying and analyzing the "images" of characters can hardly be considered adequate actions for mastering the elements of objectified experience: after all, these works were not created for such an analysis at all. Such actions form in students a distorted attitude towards fiction, which is no longer seen as a source of pleasure and a means of empathy, but as a simple source of information subject to dry rational analysis. The emotional charge of such works fades into the background.

Table 5

Dependence of the type of teaching on the degree of formation of students' activities

Level awareness needs students	Level formation of teaching as an activity	The structure of the teacher's actions
1. Prescriptive(informative) teaching
not realized	Not formed	Clarification of the need, arousing interest, passion, stimulation, formulating a motive, emphasis on obligation, informing, monitoring and evaluating mastery
2. Supportive(advising) teaching
Realized	The student's activity planning skills are not formed	Actualization of the need, maintaining motivation, assistance in concretizing the goal and plan of activity, assistance in performing the most difficult actions, evaluation in the interests of stimulating activity

Realized	The skills of planning and implementing activities of the student are formed	Directing the student's attention to key points; selection of directions of the search carried out by the student; strengthening the positive emotions of achieving the goal; reviewing results; discussion of self-assessment

A consequence of the lack of description: it is impossible to master the work with any object only on the basis of verbal reproductions in order to master the description of the required actions with the object.

Perhaps this statement will seem like a truism to some, but the practice of teaching with an insufficient share of practical training is still preserved, and not only for technical disciplines. This is explained by the lack of resources, premises, equipment, and simply by the fact that the educational process, consisting of lectures alone, is easier to organize and provide.

The teacher's consultations are objectively necessary, since for the development of intellect, teaching should require volitional efforts from the student, solving educational problems in activities that have not yet been mastered (an analogue of the zone of proximal development in children), i.e. in the area in which the help of the teacher is needed to some extent. Therefore, the control of the progress of the teaching should be not so much stimulating (forcing the systematic "fulfillment of lessons", as was established in school practice), but correcting the teaching methodology, recommending changing the plan drawn up, paying attention to the essential omissions in the actions performed, helping the student to overcome the difficulties that have arisen. beyond their capabilities.

The control of the depth of assimilation of the prescribed content of education in examinations mainly pursues the goals of certifying the education received by the student, according to the level of assimilation of the content of a particular academic discipline, which satisfies the requirements of society (the state) for education of this type or for the specialty being mastered.

Direct communication to students of information to be assimilated is necessary in the era of mass circulation of textbooks and the widespread use of informatization tools only when lecturing on problematic issues that require the synthesis of many sources of information and have not yet been covered in educational literature. N. I. Pirogov in the middle of the XIX century. urged to make lectures irreplaceable. Unfortunately, direct informing has to be used in conditions of an insufficient amount of educational literature, in which the sources of educational information become inaccessible to students. That is why N. E. Zhukovsky in the 30s. 20th century believed that the lecture was and remains the most economical way to convey information to students. Often and still the communication of information is the most familiar content of teaching.

Returning to fig. 17, it should be noted that among the actions that make up the teaching in higher education (the content of the teaching), three most important groups of actions can be distinguished: the perception of educational information, its comprehension and memorization, the formation of operational skills and the development of activities in general. The leading actions for learning in higher education are actions to master the activity being studied; all other actions are carried out in the interests of achieving this particular goal.

In the context of exams aimed at reproducing learned information without relying on reference books and approved methods necessary for any specialist, memorization of information becomes the leading one (unfortunately, sometimes without proper understanding of it). Of course, memorization in the course of learning is necessary, but it should relate to semantic aspects, memorizing exact formulations (when a distortion of the wording can lead to a distortion of meaning), memorizing the sources that will be used in the implementation of the mastered activity and ways of orienting in them.

The simplest learning outcomes are skills that can be formed unconsciously - in the process of repeated repetition of operations. The difference in the levels of learning outcomes is shown in fig. 18.

Rice. 18.

Note: Pay attention to how different symbolism of lines increases the information content of the diagram: activity is controlled by a motive (dash-dotted line) and represents a skill (solid arrow), skill is influenced by value orientations (dashed arrow), but it is controlled by knowledge of OOD (dash-dotted arrow). ); the action is influenced by the knowledge of the TOE and the possession of the skill (dashed arrows), but it is driven by a private goal (dash-dotted line), etc.

Skill- automated execution of the operation, which does not require constant control of consciousness. This is the level of mastering the operation, at which it is performed as if automatically, reflexively, at the level of mental actions without constant control of consciousness.

Skill is the result of an operational level, not related to goal setting, so this concept should not be applied to actions.

Knowledge- verbal, figurative, symbolic or operational (manipulative) information learned or learned by an individual, arbitrarily reproduced or used in speech or actions.

The criterion of knowledge is also inseparable from action. To know is to always perform some kind of activity or action related to this knowledge. Knowledge is a relative concept. "The degree (quality) of knowledge assimilation is determined by the variety and nature of the activities in which knowledge can function" . Thus, knowledge (and not just skills) is associated with the activity in which they are acquired.

Skill- the level of mastering a composite action or activity that allows an individual to carry it out consciously and with the necessary level of quality.

Beliefs- knowledge or methods of action consciously accepted by the subject as standards for decision-making or evaluation.

Beliefs are the product of persuasive learning and assimilation of a chosen system or a set of elements of objectified experience (beliefs also include value orientations).

Let's turn again to Fig. 17. The totality of the primary learning outcomes - skills and knowledge - ensures that the subject of learning masters the operational basis of the activity being mastered or the skills to perform operations, the indicative basis of the OOD activity, which ensures the planning of the activity being mastered, and the indicative basis of the OOD actions, which ensures the choice of operations and the error-free execution of actions, the formation of beliefs , and on their basis, the value orientations of the individual, which ensure the moral formation of the subject, goal-setting and the choice of a way to satisfy a conscious need, the expansion of the erudition of the subject and its development. The combination of these results leads to the improvement of existing and the formation of new personality traits required to perform the mastered activity with the required quality.

Along with this, emotional aspects cannot be ignored in learning outcomes. As follows from the above, the learning outcomes are very wide and varied. The traditional emphasis on knowledge unacceptably reduces both the teaching itself and the control of its results in exams, leads to memory overload and practically tests not the level of assimilation, but the ability of the individual to remember what has been learned. Nevertheless, very often the control of learning outcomes is called knowledge control, creating an incorrect association that singles out knowledge as the main and only object of control (and, therefore, as the main goal of learning).

Pedagogy: textbook, manual / Ed. Yu. K. Babansky. - M., 1983. - S. 124.
Ilyina T. A. Pedagogy. - M., 1984. - S. 202.
Talyzina N. F. Management of the process of assimilation of knowledge (psychological foundations). - M., 1984.
Talyzina N. F. Management of the process of assimilation of knowledge (psychological foundations). - S. 43.

Content:

Content, structure and main stages of education
Patterns of learning
Goals and functions of training
The concept of "education"
The essence of the learning process
The content of the learning process
Principles and rules of training
Forms of study
Types of training
Means of education
Teaching methods
Problem learning
Learning Technology
The essence of the learning process
Control in the learning process
Content of education
The subject and tasks of didactic research
Content and forms of didactics
Basic methods and forms of education
Means of education in modern school
Technological education for schoolchildren
Verbal and visual teaching methods
Types of training
Control and evaluation of the quality of education

Content, structure
and main stages of education

Education it is a socially organized and standardized process (and its result) of the constant transfer of socially significant experience by previous generations to subsequent generations, which in ontogenetic terms represents the formation of a personality in accordance with the genetic program and socialization of the personality.

a) knowledge about nature, society, technology, thinking and methods of activity;

b) experience in the implementation of known methods of activity, embodied together with knowledge in the skills and abilities of a person who has mastered this experience;

c) experience in creative, search activities to solve new problems that arise before society;

d) the experience of a value attitude to objects or means of human activity, its manifestation in relation to the surrounding world, to other people in the totality of needs that determine the emotional perception of personally-defined objects included in its system of values.

Main stages of education:

1. Preschool. It is represented by the system of preschool institutions. According to American sociologists and educators, if you apply the entire pedagogical arsenal at preschool age, then eight out of ten children will study at school at the level of gifted children.

2. School. The next stage is school, primary - 3-4 years of study, basic - 5 years of study, secondary school - two more years of study. The school is the main basic institution in the modern education system, the greatest achievement of civilization.

3. Out-of-school education. We include all kinds of out-of-school institutions in it: music, sports schools, stations for young tourists, naturalists, centers of technical and artistic creativity. Their activities ensure the comprehensive development of the personality of a child, a teenager.

4. Vocational education - a professional school, represented by technical schools, vocational schools, now also colleges, universities of various types.

5. Postgraduate education - postgraduate studies, doctoral studies, obtaining a second specialty, institutes and faculties of advanced training, internships, etc.

6. Higher education. Fundamentally new for domestic higher professional education is the forming multi-stage system: bachelor, specialist, master. Attracts its flexibility, the opportunity for young people to get involved in professional activities at different levels of education, the integration of secondary and higher professional educational institutions.

6. Non-state educational institutions. New forms of education appear in the form of independent structures or special divisions of state educational institutions.

Education functions:

1. the function of social mobility - it has the ability to select and predispose a person to certain forms of professional and social activities;

2. the function of social control. The school educates law-abiding citizens. At the same time, the school also exercises direct social control over the behavior and upbringing of the younger generation;

3. the function of cultural transmission, when education acts as a generator and custodian of the cultural heritage of society;

4. the function of social selection - education serves as a mechanism for securing a person for a certain group, stratum, system;

5. ideological function - it was described by Bourdieu. Any government seeks to strengthen its position through ideology, which is transmitted to society through the education system.

In its structural aspect, education, as well as training, is a triune process, characterized by such aspects as the assimilation of experience, the development of behavioral qualities, physical and mental development.

PATTERNS OF LEARNING

Education, both for students and for the teacher, is one of the types of knowledge of the world around. Learning, as a type of cognitive activity, is the initial, most significant feature on which the characteristics of all educational activities depend. Learning is based on the general patterns of cognition.

Human cognition goes through a number of stages. At the beginning sensuous knowledge, which leads to a variety of ideas about the natural and social phenomena, events, objects surrounding the child. The more systematized and generalized these sensory images are, the higher his ability to learn from the point of view of the possibilities of cognition.

Second phase - abstract knowledge, mastery of the system of concepts. The cognitive activity of the student becomes one-sided. He studies certain aspects of the world around him through the content of educational subjects. If, during concrete, sensory cognition, a figurative picture arises in the mind of a child, for example, a forest and its inhabitants, murmuring streams, fluttering butterflies, then abstract cognition leads to concepts, rules, theorems, proofs. Numbers, definitions, formulas rise in the mind. The younger student is at the stage of transition of knowledge from the concrete to the abstract. He begins to master the conceptual forms of thinking.

Concrete and abstract in the cognitive activity of students act as contradictory forces and create different trends in mental development. The teacher needs to know the mechanisms of the emergence and resolution of contradictions in order to skillfully manage the learning process.

There is a higher stage of cognition, when, on the basis of highly developed abstract thinking, a generalized idea of the world around is formed, leading to the formation of views, beliefs, and worldview. Education significantly accelerates the pace of individual psychological development of the student. A student in a short period of time learns what in the history of mankind has been known for centuries.

OBJECTIVES AND FUNCTIONS OF TRAINING

Education there is a system of organizing methods for transferring to an individual socio-historical experience developed in the process of social practice: knowledge, skills, abilities, types and methods of activity in indicators that are normative for specific historical conditions. The purpose of this activity is the planned and directed mental development of the individual. Learning takes place in the form of cooperation, joint activity of the teacher and the student. The teacher, through communication and other means, organizes the activity of the student, adequate to the learning objectives. The student initially performs it as a joint, distributed activity, and then, in the process of internalization, this joint external and expanded activity becomes the internal and reduced activity of the student himself.

Learning as a creative process. Learning will become a creative process for both students and teachers, if from the very beginning it is built as a research activity of the children themselves.

Traditional teaching. A characteristic feature of traditional education is its orientation to the past, to those pantries of social experience where knowledge is stored, organized in a specific form of educational information. Hence the orientation of learning to memorizing the material.
Learning Functions
1. Educational - associated with the assimilation of knowledge, skills (associated with the expansion of volume).

Knowledge is the understanding, storage in memory and reproduction of the facts of science, laws, concepts, theories. They must become the property of the individual, enter into the structure of her experience. The most complete implementation of this function should ensure the completeness, systematicity and awareness of knowledge, their strength and validity.

2. Educational - the formation of a value attitude to the material (with the formation of relations - outlook).

The educational function follows from the very content, forms and methods of teaching, but at the same time it is also carried out through a special organization of communication between the teacher and students. The implementation of this function is required in the organization of the educational process, the selection of content, forms and methods.

3. Developing - establishing close relationships between phenomena and factors.

The developing function is carried out more effectively with a special orientation of the interaction between the teacher and students for the comprehensive development of the individual.

Educational:

- to form in students the concept of fabric; to acquaint with the main types of tissues, the features of their structure and functions;

- indicate the relationship of the structure with the functions performed.

Educational:

- to continue the formation of a scientific worldview based on the relationship of the structure with the functions performed;

- to continue the education of interest in the subject within the framework of the topic being studied.

Developing:

- to continue the formation of the ability to compare, generalize, establish cause-and-effect relationships.

The concept of "education".
types and ways of obtaining it

Under education we understand such a side of education, which consists in mastering the system of scientific and cultural values accumulated by mankind, in mastering the system of cognitive skills and abilities, forming on their basis a worldview, morality, behavior, moral and other qualities of a person, developing his creative forces and abilities, preparation for social life, for work. All elements of social experience are included in the content of education.

Depending on the goals, nature and level of training, secondary, general, polytechnic, vocational and higher education are distinguished. The knowledge, skills and abilities necessary for every person are provided by a general education school. The knowledge, skills and abilities necessary for an employee of a certain profession are acquired by him in special educational institutions. The content and methodology of general education ensure the formation of cognitive interests and skills in schoolchildren necessary for work, further education and self-education, serve as the basis for polytechnic and vocational education and are carried out in close relationship with them.

Education can be achieved in many ways. This can be independent reading, radio and television programs, courses, lectures, work in production, etc. But the most correct and reliable way is systematically organized education, which aims to provide a person with a normal and complete education. The content of education is determined by state curricula, curricula and textbooks in the subjects studied.

Systematic education plays a leading role in the implementation of education, which is carried out in a certain organization under the guidance of a specially trained person (teacher, educator, leader, instructor).

Education is a holistic pedagogical process, during which the tasks of education are solved, the upbringing and development of students is carried out. This process is primarily two-sided. On the one hand, it has a teacher (teacher), who sets out the program material and manages this process, and on the other hand, students, for whom this process takes on the character of teaching, mastering the material being studied. Their joint activities are aimed at a deep and lasting assimilation of scientific knowledge, the development of skills and abilities, their application in practice, the development of creative abilities, the formation of a materialistic worldview and moral and aesthetic views and beliefs.

THE ESSENCE OF THE LEARNING PROCESS

Education as a social phenomenon is a purposeful, organized, systematic transfer to the older and assimilation by the younger generation of the experience of social relations, social consciousness, culture of productive labor, knowledge about active transformation and environmental protection.

Learning consists of two inextricably linked phenomena: teaching adults and educational work, called the teaching of children. Teaching is a special activity of adults aimed at transferring the amount of knowledge, skills and abilities to children and educating them in the learning process. Teaching is a specially organized, active independent cognitive, labor and aesthetic activity of children, aimed at mastering knowledge, skills, development of mental processes and abilities.

The social, pedagogical, psychological essence of education is most fully and vividly manifested in its practically expedient functions. Among them, the most significant is the educational function. The main meaning of the educational function is to equip students with a system of scientific knowledge, skills and abilities and its use in practice. The end result of the implementation of the educational function is the effectiveness of knowledge, expressed in the conscious operation of them, in the ability to mobilize previous knowledge to obtain new ones, as well as the formation of the most important both special (in the subject) and general educational skills and abilities.

Skills are formed as a result of exercises that vary the conditions of educational activity and provide for its gradual complication. To develop skills, repeated exercises in the same conditions are necessary. The educational function organically follows from the very content, forms and methods of teaching, but at the same time it is also carried out through a special organization of communication between the teacher and students. Properly delivered education always develops, however, the developmental function is carried out more effectively with a special focus on the interaction of teachers and students for the comprehensive development of the individual. The vocational guidance function of education has also gained relevance.

CONTENT OF THE LEARNING PROCESS

Learning as a process is a purposeful, organized with the help of special methods and various forms of active learning interaction between teachers and students. The learning process has a clear structure. Its leading element is the goal. In addition to the general and main goal - to transfer to children a body of knowledge, skills and abilities, to develop the mental strength of students - the teacher constantly sets himself private tasks to ensure the deep assimilation of a specific amount of knowledge, skills and abilities by schoolchildren. The psychological and pedagogical significance of the goal lies in the fact that it organizes and mobilizes the creative forces of the teacher, helps to select and choose the most effective content, methods and forms of work. In the educational process, the goal “works” most intensively when it is well imagined not only by the teacher, but also by children.

The structural element of the educational process, around which the pedagogical action unfolds, the interaction of its participants, is the content of the social experience assimilated by children. The content of the educational process as a system can have a different structure of presentation. Structural elements are individual knowledge or its elements that can “link” with each other in various ways. The most common at present are linear, concentric, spiral and mixed content presentation structures.

With a linear structure, separate parts of the educational material form a continuous sequence of closely interconnected links that are worked out during schooling, as a rule, only once.

The concentric structure suggests a return to the knowledge being studied. The same question is repeated several times, and its content is gradually expanded, enriched with new information.

A characteristic feature of the spiral structure of the presentation is that students, without losing sight of the original problem, gradually expand and deepen the circle of knowledge related to it.

Mixed structure - a combination of linear, concentric and spiral structures.

The central figure, the system-forming beginning of the learning process is the teacher - the bearer of the content of education and upbringing, the organizer of all cognitive activity of children. His personality combines objective and subjective pedagogical values. The main participant, the most active self-developing subject of the educational process is the child himself, the student. He is the very object and subject of pedagogical knowledge, for the sake of which the learning process is created. The process of learning, the development of a system of knowledge, skills and abilities by a child is divided into inextricably dialectically interconnected stages of cognition. The first stage is perception-assimilation. On the basis of perception, comprehension is carried out, which provides understanding and assimilation of the material. The second stage absorbs the results of the initial assimilation in a generalized form and creates the basis for deepening knowledge. It is characterized as assimilation-reproduction. Perception, assimilation and primary reproduction of educational material make it possible to implement the third stage of cognition - the creative practical application of knowledge.

An important element of the educational process is the student team as an object of the teacher's teaching influence and the subject of cognition. The form of education is a limited in time and organizational in space cognitive joint activity of teachers and students. The leading form of education is the lesson. The accompanying forms are diverse: laboratory and practical classes, a seminar, a lecture, individual and group training, a circle. An organic element of the structure of the learning process is independent extracurricular (home, library, circle) work of students on the assimilation of compulsory and freely received information, on self-education.

The final element of the structure of the learning process is pedagogical diagnostics. Among the diagnostic methods are individual and frontal oral survey, various independent written works, practical tasks of a reproducing and creative nature.

PRINCIPLES AND RULES OF TRAINING

Under learning in modern science and pedagogical practice, an active purposeful process of transferring (transmitting) the sociocultural experience of previous generations (knowledge, norms, generalized methods of action, etc.) to the student and organizing the development of this experience, as well as the ability and willingness to apply this experience in various situations . Learning accordingly presupposes as its condition the process of learning or learning as the mastering of this experience.

According to the above grounds traditional education can be characterized as contact (maybe remote), reporting, based on the principle of consciousness (awareness of the very subject of development - knowledge), purposefully unmanaged, built on a disciplinary-subject principle, out of context (in the system of higher education - without purposeful modeling of future professional activity during the learning process).

Problem learning is based on the acquisition of new knowledge by students through the solution of theoretical and practical problems, tasks in the resulting problem situations.

Programmed learning is based on general and particular didactic principles of consistency, accessibility, systematicity, and independence. These principles are implemented during the execution of the main element of programmed learning - the training program, which is an ordered sequence of tasks.

Sufficiently widespread in vocational (higher and secondary) education is currently sign-context, or context learning. In this training, information is presented in the form of educational texts ("signs"), and the tasks constructed on the basis of the information contained in them set the context for future professional activity.
Learning principles
1. The principle of developing and educating the nature of education is aimed at the comprehensive development of the personality and individuality of the student.

2. The principle of scientific content and methods of the educational process reflects the relationship with modern scientific knowledge.

3. The principle of systematicity and consistency in mastering the achievements of science, culture, experience, activity.

4. The principle of consciousness, creative activity and independence of students under the guidance of a teacher.

5. The principle of visibility.

6. The principle of accessibility of education.

7. The principle of strength of learning outcomes.

8. The principle of connection between learning and life.

9. The principle of a rational combination of individual and collective forms and methods of student activity.

The principle of visibility.

The effectiveness of training depends on the expediency of involving the senses in the perception and processing of educational material. Y. Comenius: "In the process of learning, children should be given the opportunity to observe, measure, and conduct experiments."

Types of visualization along the line of increasing their abstractness:

1. Natural visibility.

2. Experimental (experiments, experiments).

3. Volumetric (models, layouts).

4. Visual (paintings, photographs, drawings).

5. Sound.

6. Symbolic or graphic (graphs, diagrams).

7. Internal (images created by the teacher's speech).

FORMS OF TRAINING

A form is a special design of the learning process. Classifications according to the number and composition of students, place of study, duration of student work. For these reasons, the forms of education are divided into: individual, individual-group, collective, classroom and extracurricular, school and extracurricular. The oldest is individual. "+" - allows you to individualize the content, methods and pace. "-" - wastefulness, limits cooperation with other students. Individual-group - classes in a group (non-coverage of all children). Class-lesson - students of the same age and level of training make up a class. The class works according to one annual plan and program according to a regular schedule. The basic unit of a lesson is a lesson. "+" - a clear organization, simple management, training in an in-depth program, the possibility of interaction between students. "-" - orientation to the average student; difficulties in taking into account individual characteristics, there is no connection between learning and real life. Bell-Lancastor peer-to-peer learning system: older students studied material under the guidance of a teacher and then taught those who knew less. "-" - the quality of learning is low. Batovskaya - part 1 - lesson work, part 2 - individual lessons with students who need such classes. The most common form is a lesson, an excursion, clubs, olympiads, competitions, extracurricular, extracurricular forms.

Extracurricular forms of education. Their characteristic
These are subject circles, scientific societies, olympiads. competitions, etc. The work is carried out on a voluntary basis, the composition of students is heterogeneous. Guidelines of the subject teacher, invited experts. Content: in-depth study of individual issues of the program, extra-program material, the history of the development of science, design, modeling, experimental work, meetings with scientists, etc. Thanks to these forms, students can satisfy their various cognitive and creative needs. Develop creative potential, actively participate in competitions, olympiads, etc. These forms are of great educational and educational value. They are diverse and require erudition and creativity from the teacher.

This is the organization of educational and cognitive activity of students, corresponding to different conditions for its implementation and used by the teacher in the learning process.

Forms:

1. lesson;

2. excursion;

3. extracurricular work;

4. out-of-class work;

5. electives;

6. homework;

7. socially useful work.

Lesson

Structure: organizational moment, updating or testing knowledge, new material, consolidation, d / z, total.

Types lesson (based on didactic tasks): introductory, learning new material, developing skills, accounting and verification, generalizing, combined.

Kinds connection with the source of knowledge, dependence on the cognitive activities of students, the activities of the teacher: explanatory-illustrative, problematic, laboratory lesson.

Excursion - a form of organization of the educational process with a class or group, which allows for cognitive purposes to observe and study objects and phenomena in natural conditions, at exhibitions, at the choice of a teacher or on topics related to the program.

Signs:

1. The study of the object must be carried out directly in nature, in the museum.

2. The cognitive activity of students is aimed at studying specific objects in natural conditions.

3. The predominant role is played by observation, independent work.

4. The educational process should take place outside the classroom.

Methods, equipment.

In the classroom, the teacher gives an introductory briefing, distributes tasks, divides students into groups.

Stages:

1. choice of topic,

2. definition of goals and objectives,

3. learning the route,

4. selection of objects,

5. preparation of equipment,

6. study of literature,

7. compiling a summary,

8. preparation of tasks and cards,

9. selection and development of methodology.

Structure:

1. introductory conversation,

2. student organization,

3. study of the intended objects,

4. collection of material,

5. fastening,

6. registration of results.

Requirements:

1. should have not only educational, but also educational value,

2. entertainment elements,

3. should not look like a lecture,

4. the number of copies should be limited,

5. all types of work are recorded on the spot,

6. collected material is used,

7. safety precautions.

Classification:

Venue:

1. in nature,

2. in the museum,

3. in production.

By goals: educational, industrial, local history.

By time: introductory, current, final.

Extracurricular work - a form of organization of students to perform after school compulsory, related to the study of the course of practical work on individual or group assignments of the teacher.

Extracurricular activities - a form of various organization of voluntary work of students outside the lesson under the guidance of a teacher to excite and manifest their cognitive interests and creative initiative in expanding and supplementing the school curriculum.

TYPES OF TRAINING

Types of training are distinguished by the nature of training and learning activities, by the construction of content, methods and means of training.

In didactics, there are 3 types of learning.

1. Explanatory and illustrative. The most common one is characterized by the fact that the teacher presents the material in finished form, and the student perceives and reproduces it.

Advantages: 1. systematic, 2. low time consumption.

Flaws: 1. the developmental function is poorly implemented, 2. the activity of students is reproductive.

2. Problem based learning.

3. Programmed learning.

Teaching is carried out as a clearly controlled process, since the studied material is divided into small, easily digestible portions, which are consistently presented to the student during the study. After studying each fragment, an assimilation check follows, only after which they move on to the next fragment.

Target– improving the management of the educational process. It emerged in the early 60s.

Main principles:

1. control of every step;

2. timely assistance;

3. avoiding academic failure and discouragement from studying.

Engaged in the USA: Pressy, Crowder, Skinner.

Engaged in the USSR: Talyzina, Landa, Matyushkin.

Peculiarities:

1. The educational material is divided into separate portions.

2. The educational process consists of successive steps containing a portion of knowledge and mental actions for their assimilation.

3. Each step ends with a control.

5. If there are mistakes, then the student receives help and performs an additional task.

6. As a result, the student himself masters the material at the right pace.

7. The teacher acts as an organizer, assistant and consultant.

1. Presents 1 dose of material - Perceives information.

2. Explains 1 dose and how to deal with it - Performs 1 dose digestion operation.

3. Puts control questions - Answers questions.

4. If the student answers correctly, present the 2nd dose, if not, explain the error, return to work with the 1st dose - Move on to the next dose or return to study 1.

Advantages: 1. small doses are well absorbed, 2. the pace is chosen by the student, 3. a high result is provided.

Flaws: 1. not every material lends itself to step-by-step processing, 2. limitation of the student's mental development by reproductive operations, 3. lack of communication and emotions.

MEANS OF EDUCATION

Means of education- material or ideal objects placed between the teacher and students and are used for students to acquire knowledge, form experience, cognitive, creative and practical activities.

Means of education– real objects (for example, a bridge). The choice depends on the purpose, content, methods of education, the ability to use the teacher, the equipment of the school.

Material and ideal means, means of teaching and learning.

Main functions means of education:

1. Informational

2. Didactic

3. Control

4. Auxiliary (helps to perceive the material)

5. Maintaining cognitive interest

6. Material availability

7. Providing more accurate information about the phenomenon under study

8. Makes student work more interesting

9. Allows the student to progress at their own pace

Classification:

1. Natural remedies:

a) living things

b) inanimate natural objects,

c) herbariums, collections, skeletons, stuffed animals.

2. Visual: tables, layouts, diagrams, charts, maps, photographs, layouts.

3. Technical, with which you can solve didactic problems: a microscope, magnifying glass, overhead projector, computer.

4. Teaching aids on a printed basis.

5. Audiovisual: videos, slides, filmstrips.

6. Didactic materials: demonstration and handout material.

11. TRAINING METHODS
Method (from Greek "way")- "a way of moving towards the truth, towards the expected result."

It acts as an orderly way of activity to achieve educational goals.

Reflects:

1. Methods of teaching work of the teacher and methods of educational work of students in their relationship.

2. The specifics of their work to achieve various learning goals.

Teaching methods- ways of compatibility of the activities of the teacher and students, aimed at solving learning problems.

Classification

1. Methods of work of the teacher (story, explanation) and methods of work of students (exercises, independent work).

2. According to the source of knowledge.

A) verbal methods allow in the shortest possible time to transfer large amounts of information, to pose problems for students and indicate ways to solve them.

Story- oral narrative presentation of educational material.

Requirements: contain only reliable facts, include sufficiently vivid and convincing examples, facts, have a clear logic of presentation, be emotional, be presented in a simple and accessible language, display elements of the teacher's personal assessment.

Explanation - verbal interpretation of regularities, essential properties of the studied object, phenomenon.

Requires: accurate formulation of tasks, consistent disclosure of cause-and-effect relationships, argumentation and evidence, the use of comparison, comparison, attraction of vivid examples, impeccable logic of presentation.

Conversation- a dialogue method of teaching, in which the teacher, by setting a carefully thought-out system of questions, leads students to understand new material.

Introductory, conversation-messages, reinforcing, individual, frontal.

Advantages: activates educational and cognitive activity, develops memory and speech, has great educational power, is a good diagnostic tool.

Disadvantages: a lot of time, contains an element of risk, a stock of knowledge is needed.

Discussion based on the exchange of views on the subject.

Lecture- a monologic way of presenting voluminous material.

Work with the textbook. Techniques: taking notes, drawing up a plan, thesis, citing, reviewing, compiling a certificate.

B) Visual.

Methods in which the assimilation of educational material is significantly dependent on the visual aids and technical means used in the learning process. They are used in conjunction with verbal and practical ones and are intended for visual-sensory familiarization with phenomena and processes.

illustration method involves showing students posters, tables, maps, flat models.

Demo Method associated with the demonstration of instruments, experiments, technical installations, films.

Conditions:

1. The visualization used must be appropriate for the age of the students.

2. visibility should be used in moderation.

3. observation should be organized in such a way that all students can clearly see the object being demonstrated.

4. must be highlighted when shown.

5. think through explanations in detail.

6. visibility should be consistent with the content of the material.

7. involve the students themselves in finding the desired information in a visual aid.

B) Practical are based on the practical activities of students, as a result of which practical skills and abilities are formed.

Exercises- repeated performance of a mental or practical action in order to master it or improve its quality.

The nature: oral, written, graphic, educational and labor.

According to the degree of independence of students: reproducing, training.

Laboratory- conducting experiments by students on the instructions of the teacher using instruments, i.e., studying phenomena with the help of special equipment. The teacher draws up instructions, and the students write down the results of the work in the form of reports, graphs.

Practical are carried out after studying large sections, are of a generalizing nature. Can be done outside of school.

3. By the nature of the cognitive activity of students: explanatory-illustrated, reproductive, problematic, partially exploratory, research methods. (Skatkin.)

PROBLEM LEARNING

A type of education in which a relatively independent search activity is organized, during which students acquire new knowledge, skills and develop general abilities, as well as research activity, form creative skills.

The teacher performs the function of a leader, the degree of his participation depends on the complexity of the material, preparedness and level of development of students.

Structure:

1. Creation of a problem situation and statement of a problem.

2. Putting forward hypotheses, suggesting possible ways to solve the problem, substantiating them and choosing one or more.

3. Experimental verification of accepted hypotheses.

4. Generalization of the results: the inclusion of new knowledge and skills in the system already mastered by students, their consolidation and application in theory and practice.

Teacher Student

1. Creates a problem situation - Recognizes contradictions in phenomena.

2. Organizes reflection on the problem - Formulates the problem.

3. Organizes the search for a hypothesis - Puts forward a hypothesis.

4. Organizes hypothesis testing - Tests the hypothesis.

5. Organizes the generalization of the result and the application of the knowledge gained - Analyzes the result, applies the knowledge gained.

Advantages:

1. students are involved in active intellectual and practical activities - the development of mental abilities;

2. arouses interest;

3. awakens creative forces.

Flaws:

1. not always possible to apply due to the nature of the material being studied;

2. unpreparedness of students, qualification of the teacher;

3. takes a lot of time.

TRAINING TECHNOLOGY

The development of the ideas of programmed learning was pedagogical technology, such a view of the learning process, according to which learning should be the most manageable process. For some time learning technology was understood as the use of technology in teaching. Since the 50s, the learning process has been considered broadly, systematically: the analysis and development of all components of the learning system, from goals to monitoring the result. And the main idea was the idea of technology reproducibility. The development of teaching technology shows that it is possible to create a teaching system, a technological process of teaching in a subject, which can be used by an average teacher and obtain results of a given quality.

Learning Technology- a direction in didactics, an area of scientific research to identify principles and develop optimal systems, to design reproducible didactic processes with predetermined characteristics.

The task of teaching technology is to study all the elements of the teaching system and to design the learning process, so that thanks to this, the teacher's educational work will turn from a poorly ordered set of actions into a purposeful process.

Features: diagnostically set goals (the goal of learning is a change in the category of goals: knowledge, understanding, application, analysis, synthesis), the orientation of all educational procedures towards the guaranteed achievement of learning goals, constant feedback, reproducibility of the entire educational cycle.

The learning technology focuses on the guaranteed achievement of goals and the idea of complete assimilation. The achievement of learning objectives is guaranteed by the development of learning materials for students and the nature of the learning process, learning procedures. They are as follows: after determining the diagnostically set goals for the subject, the material is divided into fragments - educational elements to be mastered, then verification work is developed in sections, then training is organized, verification - current control, correction and repeated, modified study - training. And so on until the complete assimilation of the given educational elements. The concept of complete assimilation gives high results, but in this way the material that can be divided into units is studied, the assimilation occurs mainly at the reproductive level. Feedback, objective control of knowledge is an essential feature of learning technology (tests).

Flaws: orientation towards reproductive type training, a kind of coaching, as well as undeveloped motivation for educational activities, ignoring the personality, its inner world.

Teaching technology gave impetus to practical didactics - the creation of learning systems, a finished product - a package of documents and tools, didactic and technological, allowing a middle-level teacher to give high results.

THE ESSENCE OF THE LEARNING PROCESS

Learning process- this is a purposeful interaction of a teacher and students, part of a holistic pedagogical process, as a result of which the student develops certain knowledge, skills, experience of activity and behavior, personal qualities. Purposeful consistently changing interaction between a teacher and a student in the course of which the tasks of education, development and upbringing are solved.

The learning process is built taking into account the age characteristics of students.

The driving force of learning is the contradictions, on the basis of the resolution of which, through the skillful selection of teaching aids, the development of students is carried out. Learning always takes place in communication.

The process is two-way:

1) teaching (the activity of a teacher);

2) teaching (student activity).

Teaching - activities for the organization of learning, as a result of which schoolchildren learn the content of education, the activity of monitoring the progress and results of the organization of training.

Doctrine- organization of conditions by the person himself: for the assimilation of the material.

Components of the learning process:

– Target ( goals and objectives).

– D active ( activities of teachers and students).

– Productive ( assessment, self-assessment).

CONTROL IN THE PROCESS OF LEARNING

The management of any process involves the implementation of control, i.e., the definition of a system for checking the effectiveness of its functioning. It is essential for the successful course of the learning process. Control is aimed at obtaining information, analyzing which, the teacher makes the necessary adjustments to the implementation of the learning process. Control performs 3 learning functions. The educational and developmental value of the test is that students not only benefit from listening to the answers of their comrades, but also actively participate in the survey themselves, asking questions, answering them, repeating the material, preparing for what they will be asked. Educational function: accustoming students to systematic work, discipline and development of will.

Requirements: individual character, systematic, regular conduct, variety of forms of control, comprehensiveness, objectivity, differentiated approach, unity of teachers' requirements, control in this class.

Types of control:

Preliminary - is aimed at identifying knowledge, skills and abilities in the section that will be studied.

Current- carried out in everyday work in order to check the assimilation of the previous material and identify gaps in knowledge (answer boards, work on cards, dictation).

Thematic- aims to systematize students' knowledge (examination, testing, test).

final(final examination, oral work on tickets, defense of abstracts).

Forms: individual, group, frontal.

Methods: oral (individual and frontal), written, practical, machine, self-control.

Combined control.

CONTENT OF EDUCATION

One of the main means of personality development and the formation of its basic culture is the content of education.

Content of education- a pedagogically adapted system of knowledge, skills and abilities, experience of creative activity and experience of an emotional-volitional relationship, the assimilation of which is designed to ensure the formation of a comprehensively developed personality capable of reproducing (preserving) and developing the material and spiritual culture of society.

Factors that influence the formation of the content of education:

1. Order of the society.

2. The degree of satisfaction with the content of education, the principles of scientific character.

3. Age and individual characteristics of students, their optimal opportunities.

4. The needs of the individual in education.

Content selection principles:

1. The principle of compliance of the content of education with the requirements of the development of society, science, culture.

2. The principle of a single content and procedural side of learning when selecting the content of general education, it rejects its one-sided, subject-scientific orientation (it is necessary to take into account the principles and technologies of its transmission and assimilation).

3. The principle of structural unity of the content of education at different levels of its formation, it implies the consistency of such components as theoretical representation, academic subject, educational material, pedagogical activity, student's personality.

4. The principle of humanitarization associated with the creation of conditions for the active creative and practical development of universal culture by students.

5. Fundamentalization principle content requires the integration of humanitarian and natural science knowledge, the establishment of continuity and interdisciplinary links.

2) worldview, moral and aesthetic ideas;

3) elements of social, cognitive and creative experience.

Bearers of educational content:

1. Curriculum.

2. Academic subject.

3. Curriculum.

4. Educational literature.

Syllabus- Regulations that guide the activities of the school. Available basic curriculum, t spice curriculum, curriculum school plan.

Curriculum unit- academic subject.

Training program- a document that characterizes a particular subject. approved by the Ministry of Education. It contains a list of topics, an explanatory note (tasks, methodology, order of study), indicates practical, laboratory work, and sets out basic requirements for knowledge and skills.

SUBJECT AND OBJECTIVES OF DIDACTIC RESEARCH

Tasks of didactics:

1. describe and explain the learning process and the conditions for its implementation

2. to develop a more perfect organization of the learning process, new learning systems, new learning technologies.

Learning acts for the researcher as an object of study when he carries out scientific and theoretical function pedagogy. As a result of the study, he receives knowledge about how the learning process proceeds, already implemented or being implemented in reality, what are its patterns and what is its essence. Theory serves as the basis for practical activity, makes it possible to direct, transform and improve it. When a scientist moves from displaying learning to designing it, he constructive and technical function.

Methods of pedagogical research
1. Methods for studying pedagogical experience (observation, conversation, interviews, questionnaires).

2. Inductive and deductive methods (induction, deduction).

3. Methods of working with literature (compiling a bibliography, summarizing, taking notes, annotating, citing).

5. Pedagogical experiment (stating, creatively transforming, verification or control experiment).

CONTENT AND FORMS OF DIDACTICS

Didactics- this is a part of pedagogical science, revealing in the most general form the theoretical foundations of training and education. In didactics, these foundations are formulated and expressed in the form of patterns and principles of education, tasks and content of education, forms and methods of teaching and learning, stimulation and control for almost all learning systems. These most general provisions are, therefore, also relevant to industrial and economic training.

The most important component of didactics are the principles of teaching. These are the main guidelines that reflect the laws of the pedagogical process and orient the teacher to the effective organization of studies, the optimal use of forms, methods and means of teaching students in it, to the appropriate selection of the content of classes.

To the number general didactic principles training include the following:

1. the orientation of education - is determined by a comprehensive solution of the problems of education, upbringing in the spirit of socialist consciousness and the comprehensive development of the individual;

2. close connection with life - characterized by entering the practice of socialist construction;

3. systematic, consistent, continuity - ensured by the thoughtful interconnection and dependence of educational subjects, the logic of their succession one after another and next to others, an increase in the level of problematic content of disciplines as you move from one education system to another, from one type of educational institution to another ;

4. accessibility of learning - is determined by the level of cognitive abilities of the trainees, the need to organize the learning process of students in the “zone of their proximal mental development”, when the level of learning is noticeably high, but achievable for the trainees;

5. visualization of learning - is provided by the inclusion in educational activities of various types of perception of information, memory, types of thinking, etc.;

6. the optimal combination of verbal, visual, practical, reproductive and problem-based teaching methods - depends on the learning conditions, the level of training of students and the pedagogical skills of the teacher;

7. a rational combination of frontal group and individual forms of education - is achieved by skillful alternation of collective educational work (immediately with the entire group of students) and direct impact on one of the students;

8. Consciousness, activity, independence of learning - are achieved by increasing the responsibility of students for the results of their studies and their emancipation in the process of cognitive, labor and play activities;

9. strength, awareness and effectiveness of knowledge and skills - are provided with a creative attitude to the educational process, both on the part of the teacher and students.

The listed principles, their entirety is not recommended to be considered as a certain set of laws, as a catechism. To treat them all and each individually should be creative, flexible, not stereotyped. And this is primarily because principles are always historically specific, they must be read in a specific social context, they must reflect the real social needs of society as fully as possible.

BASIC METHODS AND FORMS OF TRAINING

Teaching methods- these are ways of organizing the interconnected activities of the teacher and students in order to form the knowledge, skills, abilities, professional, political and moral qualities necessary for the successful implementation of production tasks.

Pedagogical science, or rather part of it - Didactics, distinguishes three groups of teaching methods:

1. organization of educational and cognitive activities of trainees;

2. stimulation of educational and cognitive processes;

3. monitoring the effectiveness of these processes and, in general, all activities.

The first group includes verbal, visual and practical teaching methods. These include: a lecture, a conversation, a story, a demonstration of visual material, exercises, practical tasks, etc. The second group (stimulation methods) includes: business games, discussions, brainstorming and other methods that activate the learning process, as well as encouragement, creation of situations of psychological comfort or discomfort as a result of moral experiences and emotional unrest. At the same time, the first group should also use active learning methods: lectures, discussions, lecturing by two teachers, etc. The third group (control methods) includes oral or written verification of acquired knowledge, acquired skills and abilities.

Communication between people is carried out in the following 4 structures:

1. indirect communication (mainly through written speech);

2. communication in pairs;

3. group communication;

4. communication in pairs of shift members.

The use of these four communication structures in the educational process gives four forms of organization of the learning process:

1. individual,

2. steam room,

3. group,

4. collective.

These four forms of organization are at the core of all learning. Therefore, we call them basic or basic. They are forms of the existence of the learning process. The content of training (education) becomes the property of the consciousness and activity of students of any age through the use of these forms. Visual and technical means can improve and supplement them, but the foundation is preserved.

In the practice of education for several centuries, not four, but only three organizational forms of education were used: group, pair and individual. These are the traditional forms. Everyone is used to them, they have long been mastered by teachers, and are recognized by official pedagogy and education authorities in all countries of the world. Only the fourth structure - communication in pairs of shifts for mass school practice and learning theory throughout the 20th century was fundamentally new. We called it "a collective form of organization of the learning process", thus contrasting it with individual and group forms.

Means of education in modern school
and their didactic characteristics

learning tool- this is a material or ideal object that is "placed" between the teacher and the student. And it is used for the assimilation of knowledge, the formation of experience in cognitive and practical activities. The learning tool has an impact on the quality of students' knowledge, their mental development and professional development. Objects that perform the function of learning tools can be classified according to their properties, subjects of activity, influence on the quality of knowledge and on the development of various abilities of their effectiveness in the educational process. Learning aids help to excite and maintain the cognitive interests of students, improve the visibility of educational material, etc. In the use of learning aids, you need to know when to stop.

Groups: natural, visual, technical, printed, audiovisual (screen-sound), didactic materials.

Natural: play a leading role in teaching biology. These are: living objects (plants, animals), inanimate (freshly frozen, conserved), herbariums, collections, preparations, micropreparations, skeletons, stuffed animals (birds, animals).

Fine: various types of tables (illustrative, textual, instructive, combined), schemes (text, digital, combined), educational pictures (steppe, meadow), diagrams, portraits, models and layouts.

Technical: due to them, the understanding of students about the subject of study improves. These include: a projector, a graph projector, a computer.

Auditory: videos and films, slides, filmstrips, recordings of bird voices.

On a printed basis: textbooks, notebooks, teaching aids.

Didactic: a very broad group of funds, since they may belong to other types.

Combining various teaching aids, it is necessary to find the best option and pay great attention to natural teaching aids. Before conducting a lesson, it is necessary to think over the place and combination of all means.

TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION FOR SCHOOLCHILDREN

This is a new direction that deals with the design of optimal learning systems, the design of learning processes. Pedagogical technology is based on the idea of complete controllability of the educational process, design and reproducibility of the training cycle.

Specific features of technological education:

1. Development of diagnostically set learning goals (describes the actions of the student: in terms of: knows, can, applies).

2. Orientation of all educational procedures to guaranteed achievement of educational goals.

3. Prompt feedback.

4. Evaluation of current and final results.

5. Reproducibility of training procedures.

The learning technology is focused on achieving goals and the idea of complete assimilation through learning procedures. After setting goals, the material is divided into fragments - learning elements to be mastered. Then there are verification works in sections, then - training, current control until complete assimilation. But here, assimilation takes place at the reproductive level, and in order to move to the search level, it is necessary to give the necessary knowledge, form skills at the reproductive level (working out skills in simplified conditions + independent practice), then the transition to the productive phase follows (problem situation + student analysis).

A feature of technological learning is the reproducibility of the learning cycle by any teacher. The training cycle contains: learning objectives, assessment of the level of learning, training, a set of training procedures, evaluation of results.

VERBAL TEACHING METHODS,
THEIR PSYCHOLOGICAL BASES

Verbal methods allow you to convey a large amount of information in the shortest possible time. Word is the source of knowledge.

Methods include: story, explanation, conversation, lecture, discussion, work with a book.

Story (plot, illustrated, informational) is an oral narrative presentation of the content of educational material.

Explanation is a verbal interpretation of patterns. A conversation is a carefully thought-out system of questions that serves to bring students to an understanding of new material (can be individual or frontal).

Discussion - based on the exchange of views on a particular issue.

Lecture - a way of presenting voluminous material, for senior classes.

Working with a textbook and a book (taking notes, drawing up a plan, ceteering, reviewing).

With the help of the word, the teacher can bring into the minds of children vivid pictures of the past, present and future. The word activates the imagination, memory and feelings of students, emotions, develops logical thinking.
VISUAL METHODS OF LEARNING.
THEIR PSYCHOLOGICAL BASES
Visual methods are used in almost all lessons. The use of visual methods should cause and develop the activity of perception and thinking of students. Visualization can be natural (objects of wildlife and dissected) and pictorial (tables, diagrams, dummies, movies). The types of visual methods include demonstrations of experiments, natural objects, visual aids. Visualization is of paramount importance in biology lessons, because it gives vivid figurative ideas about plants and animals.

TYPES OF TRAINING.
COMPARATIVE PEDAGOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS

In didactics, there are a number of learning theories that explain the essence of the didactic process in different ways (they propose to build the pedagogical process in different ways).

The types of training are different in the nature of educational activities and training, in the construction of content.

Problem learning- the teacher organizes students in the search for knowledge. The goal is the formulation of concepts, the search for patterns, the understanding of theories (its comprehension). This work is organized with children in the course of searching, observing, analyzing, classifying various learning factors.

A problem is put forward before the students (a situation in which, in the presence of known facts, there is a contradiction that needs to be resolved), the students comprehend it and put forward a hypothesis. Next, students arrange an experiment for proof.

(+) gives development to mental abilities; generates interest; the result of creativity.

(-) depends on the nature of the educational material, a lot of time, thorough preparation of students and teachers is needed.

Programmed- learning is carried out as a well-managed process. The educational material is divided into small, easily digestible doses and consistently presented to students for assimilation. The next step is to check the degree of assimilation of each dose by the teacher. (1. presentation, 2. assimilation, 3. verification)

Organizers: teacher, textbook, computer. A training program is definitely needed, that is, a set of educational material and a prescription for working with it.

(+) the ability to educate a student in an individual mode (understanding of the material);

(–) not every educational material lends itself to this. There is a lack of communication.

CONTROL AND ASSESSMENT OF THE QUALITY OF TRAINING

Control methods- these are methods of diagnostic activity that allow feedback in the learning process in order to obtain data on the success of training, the effectiveness of the educational process.

Methods oral control- this is a conversation, a student's story, an explanation, reading a text, technological maps, diagrams, a report on experience, etc.

Written control provides a deep and comprehensive test of knowledge and skills of students. Practical work can be considered an effective, but little used way to test learning outcomes. Didactic tests are a relatively new method of testing learning outcomes. Advantages - the independence of verification and evaluation of knowledge by the teacher.

Under the assessment of knowledge, skills and abilities, didactics understands the process of comparing the level of proficiency achieved by the student with the reference representations described in the curriculum. In domestic didactics, a 4-point system: "5" - fully owns; "4" - owns enough, "3" - does not own enough, "2" - does not own.

Indicators of the formation of knowledge, possession of concepts; possession of facts; knowledge of scientific issues; possession of theories; possession of laws and regulations; possession of methods and procedures. Indicators of the formation of skills; construction of an algorithm of operations for performing specific actions in the skill structure; modeling the practical implementation of the actions that make up this skill; performing a set of actions that make up a given skill, introspection of the results of performing actions that make up a skill in comparison with the purpose of the activity.

The indicators of the formation of the earlyness of skills coincide with the indicators of the formation of skills. But since the skill involves the automation of actions, the time of its execution is usually also estimated, for example, measuring the speed of reading, mental counting, etc.

Content of training includes knowledge in close connection with skills, experience of creative activity and emotional and valuable attitude to the world. Its nature and volume is determined by the social order of the educational system. Each era forms this content in accordance with its characteristic culture, philosophy and pedagogical theory. The main document that determines the content of various levels and areas of education is the state educational standard, on the basis of which curricula, programs, textbooks, etc. are developed. Thus, the content of general education gives a person the opportunity to participate in social, non-professional activities, forms a civic position, his attitude to the world and determine his place in it, and special education gives a person the knowledge and skills necessary in a particular field of activity.

Learning objectives- organizing and directing the beginning of the educational process, determining its content, methods and forms. They include universal, social-group, individual-personal learning tasks. The goals of learning change, as does the content of learning, as society changes and develops.

Subject of learning- the central link in the system of elements of the learning process. A teacher who provides guidance on the activities of students acting as objects of learning.

Content and learning objectives: standards, plans, programs, textbooks

Under learning content understand certain information that is used in the learning process. The content of training includes four main elements: knowledge, skills, experience of creative activity and experience of emotional and valuable attitude to reality. The whole set of educational information is determined by the social order to the education system on the part of the individual, society and the state and adapts, adapts to the conditions of this educational system. Each historical epoch, developing its own culture, creating pedagogical theories peculiar to it, restructures the content of education accordingly.

The main documents that determine the content of education in modern educational systems are standards, curricula, programs and textbooks.

When determining the content of training, attention is drawn to the fulfillment of the following basic requirements for this most important component of the learning process:

1. didactic processing educational material, its adaptation, adaptation to learning conditions, real time budget. This requirement requires careful consideration of those essential differences that always exist between a particular science and the corresponding academic subject. An academic discipline differs from a specific science both in terms of a set of concepts and in the very logic of presentation. The skill of the teacher, his high professionalism is manifested not only in a deep knowledge of the content of a scientific discipline, but also in the art of selection, selection from it of that part that corresponds to specific learning conditions. Science turns into an academic subject only if it is synthesized, merged with didactics;

2. psychologization The content of training assumes that when selecting educational information for its effective assimilation, it is necessary to take into account the psychological characteristics of the trainees, their age characteristics and level of training.

But at the same time, both didactic and psychological processing of the material of science should in no case be carried out to the detriment of its objectivity, scientific character, which is one of the main difficulties in developing the content of education;

3. security links between theory and practice, education and upbringing suggests that even when determining the content of theoretical disciplines, such as mathematics, philosophy, etc., one should not be distracted from reality. Even an abstract, abstract theory in the educational process, if possible, should be combined with the formation of skills, the acquisition of creative experience, the ability to correctly assess reality;

Learning objectives

Problem learning objectives deserves to be considered in more detail. The purpose of education is its defining, all-penetrating beginning, influencing all its aspects: content, methods, means. The well-known remark of the Roman philosopher Seneca that for a ship without a harbor, no wind will be favorable, is also applicable to goal-setting in the education system. Aimless learning will inevitably be fruitless. In different historical periods, in different countries, a variety of goals were set for training, depending on the specifics of different eras, peoples and civilizations. The goals differed in their scope, they could be universal, social-group, individual-personal. However, in any educational system, the main goal was singled out, to which all the others were subordinate, and which determined the whole character of this educational system. It is the goals of education that distinguish one educational system from another.

The entire history of pedagogy can be represented as a chain of successive goals of education, their origin, implementation and death. There are no goals of education that are equally suitable for all times and peoples. Like everything else in the world, they are mobile, changeable, and have a specific historical character. They are set and determined by the level of economic and cultural development of society, the achievements of philosophical and pedagogical thought, the capabilities of the existing system of educational institutions, and the teaching staff.

Two opposite types of education developed in ancient Greece. They were based on polarized notions of comparative value. individual and society.

Spartan type was focused primarily on the needs of society and the subordination of the interests of the individual to them.

Athenian type as the main goal of education, he considered the personality, the comprehensive development of the abilities inherent in it by nature. Even then, this second type of education showed its high viability. However, within its framework, in the course of historical development, two different options for determining the goals and objectives of education took shape:

"reporting", "reproductive" education, considering as the main goal of education the assimilation of the basics of sciences, knowledge useful for life. This direction, which has survived to this day, is sometimes called academic;
"Developing", "productive" training, as the main goal of training, indicates the development of thinking, logic, and creative abilities of the individual.

The truth in this dispute seems to lie somewhere in the middle. Today, most specialists in learning theory come to the conclusion that it is impossible to develop a person’s creative abilities without creating a solid base for him in the form of a certain amount of scientific knowledge. Based on the rich historical experience in determining the constructive goals of education, modern didactics formulates them as a set of the following tasks:

assimilation by trainees of a certain volume of knowledge about oneself, other people, nature. Moreover, we are talking not only about some sum of facts, but also about the need to explain the links between them, as well as the ability to apply knowledge in specific situations, and ideally, the ability to solve problems based on knowledge from different areas;
ability development students, their thinking, logic, memory, imagination, feelings, will, cognitive and practical skills; paramount importance is attached to the formation of the ability to self-education, which is especially important in the modern era, when the acquired knowledge quickly becomes obsolete and continuous learning becomes necessary, including through self-study;
mastery of professional knowledge in the chosen specialty, preparation for creative work in their profession with the aim of achieving a high level of skill in it, the maturity of professionalism;
development cultural needs, civil, moral, aesthetic motivations and interests.

Setting learning objectives orients teachers and students towards achieving the end result of learning. A clear goal allows you to accurately select the content of training, highlight the main didactic units in it and the teaching methods corresponding to them, streamline all aspects of the learning process, give it the necessary integrity and unity.

Evidence of the defining role of goal-setting is the process of development of national education. For more than seventy years, Soviet pedagogy has proclaimed high democratic goals: the education of a comprehensively and harmoniously developed personality, combining high mental development, moral purity and physical perfection. However, words were often at odds with deeds. In real life, the rights and freedoms of the individual were suppressed, the entire system of education was strictly subordinated to the monopoly dominant ideology.

However, today there is no reason to abandon the previously proclaimed goal, since there is no reasonable alternative to it. But in its implementation, it is necessary to take into account previously made mistakes.

In addition, some of its emphasis should be shifted. If earlier the training of a specialist capable of working for the benefit of the state and society was put forward as the main goal of training and education, today the emphasis is shifted to the task of self-realization of the individual, the satisfaction of his needs. These changes contribute to the reunification of modern Russian education with the world and domestic humanistic tradition of education.

The national feature of Russian culture and education has long been increased attention to the inner world of a person, his individual moral position. An outstanding philosopher of the XVIII century. G.S. Pan(1722-1794) urged his readers:

Drop the Copernican spheres.

Look into the soul caves...

What matters to you

You will find in yourself.

And in arranging this inner world of a person, the main task of education is to affirm a positive attitude towards the world and people, the ideals of goodness and justice as the highest values. “We boldly express our conviction,” wrote K.D. Ushinsky- that moral influence is the main task of education, much more important than the development of the mind in general, filling the head with knowledge. Another famous Russian teacher M.I. Demkov believed that religion and morality play a huge role in people's lives. Strengthening their influence is the task of moral and religious education.

Today there is no reason to abandon these traditional goals of education for Russia. It is only necessary to create conditions for their implementation.

standards;
plans;
programs;
textbooks.

Let us briefly consider the features of each of these documents.

1.Education standards, established, as a rule, by the state, determine the mandatory minimum of knowledge for a particular level or direction, the specialty of training, as well as for each of the subjects of teaching. (Law of the Russian Federation "On Education", art. 9, p. 6).

They indicate the amount of time required for training, the list of disciplines studied, the list of didactic units that determine the minimum content of each of them. At the same time, the list of disciplines is usually divided into cycles of social and humanitarian, natural sciences, special and other disciplines. By the ratio of the time allotted for the study of these cycles, one can judge the goals of this educational system. Thus, an increase in the time for the humanitarian cycle indicates a target setting for humanization, democratization, which characterizes Russian education at the present time.

The standard is the initial and most stable part of the content of training; all its content is based on it.

Through the creation and implementation of standards, the state realizes its leading role in the education system. Compliance with standards is mandatory for all types of educational institutions, regardless of ownership. The main purpose of their introduction is to prevent a decrease in the level of education of citizens, to create equal conditions for education for all types of educational institutions, to establish the same requirements for the knowledge, skills and abilities of graduates. Based on the standard, an equal measurement of the quality of education is carried out for everyone, and for graduates of general education schools - a unified state exam (USE). The state educational standard is a kind of guarantee of the quality of education.

2.Educational plans are compiled on the basis of standards and specify their application in the real conditions of a given educational institution. To streamline this work, the state usually offers educational institutions of the same type model curriculum on which they develop their work plans. Standard plans for each direction or level of training indicate the federal, regional and individual (for a particular university, school) components. Based on them, educational institutions of certain regions (republics, territories, regions), individual educational institutions are given the right to develop individual work plans, subject to educational standards. Thus, the dual task is solved, on the one hand, maintaining a single educational space in the country, and on the other hand, conditions are created for differentiated learning, taking into account the specific needs of individual contingents of students, i.e. the most important principle of social development is being implemented: unity in diversity.

The working curriculum is the main document of an educational institution that determines the overall duration, duration of the academic year, semesters, holidays, examination sessions, a complete list of subjects studied and the amount of time allocated to each of them, the structure and duration of workshops. The curriculum is the application of the state standard to the specific conditions of a given educational institution.

3. Training program- one of the main documents that determine the content of training. It is compiled for each of the subjects included in the curriculum, and on the basis of the state standard for the corresponding academic discipline. The curriculum, as a rule, contains an introduction outlining the objectives of studying this subject, basic requirements for the knowledge, skills and abilities of students, a thematic plan for studying the material with its distribution by time and types of training sessions, a list of necessary teaching aids, visual aids, recommended literature. The main part of the program is a list of topics to be studied, indicating the main concepts that make up the content of each topic. The programs also include data on the forms of studying the course (lectures, lessons, seminars, practical exercises), as well as information on the forms of control.

Programs are developed by departments of universities, subject associations of schools and are the main guiding documents for the work of a teacher.

One of the modern innovations in this matter is the granting of the right to individual teachers to create alternative curricula in the same educational institution, taking into account the characteristics of different groups of students in terms of development and nature of interests. However, the ways of practical application of such programs are still poorly developed.

4. Textbook - It is also one of the main carriers of the content of education. The textbook reflects in detail the content of education in a particular subject. The textbook is created in accordance with the standard and the program for this discipline, which is usually certified by the appropriate stamp of the state supervisory authority. Today, the textbook can be presented not only in print, but also in electronic form. Electronic textbooks, the so-called computer training programs (CEPs), are especially widely used in distance learning in the form of cassettes, disks, and Internet sites.

The textbook, in whatever form it may be presented, is intended to perform several functions:

informational, consisting in the representation of the amount of knowledge that defines the corresponding curriculum;
educational, with the help of which the control of the cognitive actions of the student is carried out. To this end, the textbook provides questions, exercises, tasks:
control, which is presented in the form of control tests, tests, etc.

Ideally, the textbook should serve as a model for the entire educational process.

In any case, a good textbook must meet such elementary requirements as brevity, accessibility, structuredness, i.e. clear division into blocks, modules, etc.

Unfortunately, many modern textbooks, both printed and electronic, are limited only to the first of these functions, i.e. they give only educational information and do not show how to work with it, leaving it up to the reader himself, who is not always ready for this.

To ensure high-quality assimilation of the content of educational subjects, other types of educational literature are also published: reference books, books for additional reading, atlases, collections of tasks and exercises, etc. Learning outcomes largely depend on the quality of educational literature. The need for the integrated use of various types of educational information, both on paper and on electronic media, is recognized, since each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages.

It should be emphasized that for all the importance of the content of training for the overall results of educational activities, this factor is still not the most important. It is recognized that of the three main factors influencing the quality of education - the quality of the teacher's work, the level of activity of the students and the content of the training - this last factor occupies only the third place in terms of its importance. In the first place is the effectiveness of the teacher. It is the teacher who is the central figure of the entire educational process.

“In education,” Ushinsky said, “everything should be based on the personality of the educator, because the educational power is poured out only from a living source. human personality. No statutes and programs, no artificial institution mechanism, no matter how cunningly invented, can replace personalities in education."

Therefore, along with the content of training, another and more important didactic problem is the problem of the quality of the teacher's activity, the teaching methods used by him, on which, first of all, the overall effectiveness of any education system depends.

Content and learning objectives: standards, plans, programs, textbooks

Learning objectives

The topic of the lesson is "food chains"

Relative frequency of occurrence of letters of the Russian alphabet in the text

Analysis of the poem by K. Balmont "Fantasy". Balmont's poem K. D. "Fantasy" Analysis of the poem "Fantasy" by Balmont