In general, there is such a topic - frequency analysis of the text. It is argued that for a given language, the frequency of occurrence of individual letters in a meaningful text is a stable value. Combinations of two, three (bigrams, trigrams) and four letters are also stable.
This fact, in particular, was used in cryptography to break ciphers.
I'm not very good at cryptography, and the only thing that comes to mind is cracking a direct substitution cipher. I must say, the most primitive cipher, when the characters of the original alphabet used in the message are converted into other characters according to a certain rule. Such ciphers, by the way, could be opened without the use of statistical analysis (where, to reduce the error, quite large pieces of text are obviously required), but simply by guessing about some words - see the story "Dancing Men".
And the final touch (optional). Sometimes (almost always so far) the calculator needs to be provided with a description - what are the parameters, what formulas it uses, and in general, why is it all - just like I'm doing now. An article is written for this, and the calculator is inserted directly into the article. To write an article, select the menu item "Create ..." -> "Article" on the main page of the "My Calculators" section and start writing. To insert a calculator, press the button with a large underlined letter A, and select the newly created calculator in the dialog that opens.
Pie "Let them eat cakes"
Ingredients:
2 oz ground almonds
6 oz self-rising flour
2 teaspoons baking powder
4 ounces light muscovado sugar
150 ml corn oil,
200-250 ml soy milk,
zest of two unwaxed lemons
juice from two lemons
1 tablespoon orange blossom scented water
1 teaspoon natural vanilla extract.
Preheat oven to 190 degrees or less if fan oven.
Grease a pie tin. A deep six-inch shape is best, but any will do.
Pour the flour and baking powder into a bowl, then add the sugar. Stir in ground almonds and lemon zest. Add butter and milk. The less liquid, the more the dish will look like a pie, not a pudding. For this cake, you do not need to measure liquids with one hundred percent accuracy.
Now add lemon juice and mix well. Add flower water and vanilla extract, mix again. The result should look like a thick yeast-free dough.
Pour it into the mold and put in the oven for forty minutes. The crust should be brown and the filling very soft. Unmould, cool and garnish with fresh mint leaves and strawberries.
What letter is most often used in Russian? And what is the easiest way to find out, and got the best answer
Answer from Viktor Edinovich[guru]
The only correct answer! At one time, any typographer knew from experience which font (letter) is most consumed when typing.
Victor Edinovich
Enlightened
(38377)
No. I'm just a former encyclopedic scientist...
Answer from Elizaveta Ventsevich[guru]
I think "A".
Answer from Alexandra Lapikova[guru]
according to the degree of rubbing on the keyboard of a writer
Answer from YolaFka[guru]
bukafka AAAAAAAAAAAA))))
Answer from BOBA BOBAHOB[guru]
I think that the letter "X" .-evidence? just walk down the street
Answer from *
[expert]
the most commonly used 3 letters are U Y X
Answer from Mon[guru]
probably b
Answer from Dyusmikeev Valery[guru]
The letter a
Answer from &Ъ[guru]
How everyone jokes. Of course, the letter O!
Answer from Pavel Makagonov[guru]
O, then E, then I, then A. Then the consonants H, T, S, P, etc.
I had to count on a large number of texts. Don't trust bullies.
Answer from Elena Strathberry[active]
Of course, the letter R. Because it is in the middle of the keyboard!! ! 🙂
Answer from Inga zajontz[guru]
we take any dictionary, most of all words start with "p", after "r", after "o", after "T", as a result, the most characteristic word for Russian is spaciousness and simplicity
according to Dahl
Answer from Alexander Reiser[guru]
Try to guess which of the letters of the Russian language is most common?
Letter O. Frequency of occurrence - 0.090. That is, in a sequence of 1000 letters, the letter O will occur an average of 90 times.
What letters occupy a leading position, are most common?
Vowels. It is they who are most often found in the Russian language, making our speech "melodious". Following O are the letters E and Yo (together, they are not separated, because when writing, they often lose Yo). The frequency of occurrence is 0.072. Behind them are the letters A and I. The frequency of occurrence of each of them is 0.062.
Is this enough to decode the text? In principle, yes, if we are sure that the sequence of codes contains the text in Russian in some of the encodings known or unknown to us. But there is always some probability that the presented sequence of codes has nothing to do with the Russian language. To verify this, you need to use the frequency dictionary of Russian words.
What do you think is the most common word in Russian?
Union And, then equally brief parts of speech follow - B, NOT, HE, ON. But most often, of course, there will be a gap.
The decoded text must be checked for a match in the frequency dictionary. And only with a more or less complete coincidence can we say that we are dealing with a text written in Russian.
This gives 100% result if the text is big enough. If we are talking about several words, then the frequency of letters (and even more words) can be violated. What to do in this case? The reader should be given several options to choose from. Decode the text by one of the most frequent vowels. Vowels! They will always occur more often than other letters. If it is the text in Russian that is encoded, then success is guaranteed.
Frequency analysis is one of the cryptanalysis methods based on the assumption of the existence of a non-trivial statistical distribution of individual characters and their sequences in both plaintext and ciphertext, which, up to character replacement, will be preserved in the process of encryption and decryption.
In short, frequency analysis assumes that the frequency of occurrence of a given letter of the alphabet in sufficiently long texts is the same for different texts of the same language. At the same time, in the case of monoalphabetic encryption, if the ciphertext contains a character with a similar probability of occurrence, then we can assume that it is the indicated ciphered letter. Similar reasoning applies to bigrams (two-letter sequences), trigrams in the case of polyalphabetic ciphers.
The method of frequency analysis has been known since the 9th century and is also associated with the name of Al-Kindi. But the most famous case of applying such an analysis is the decipherment of Egyptian hieroglyphs by J.-F. Champollion in 1822.
This type of analysis is based on the fact that the text consists of words, and words of letters. The number of different letters in each language is limited and the letters can simply be listed. Important characteristics of the text are the repetition of letters, pairs of letters (bigrams) and m-ok (m-grams) in general, the compatibility of letters with each other, the alternation of vowels and consonants, and some others.
The idea is to count the number of occurrences of each nm possible m-grams in sufficiently long plaintexts T=t1t2…tl, composed of letters of the alphabet (a1, a2, ..., an). At the same time, consecutive m-grams of the text are viewed:
t1t2...tm, t2t3... tm+1, ..., ti-m+1tl-m+2...tl.
If is the number of occurrences of the m-gram ai1ai2...aim in the text T, and L is the total number of counted m-grams, then experience shows that for sufficiently large L, the frequencies
for a given m-gram differ little from each other.
Because of this, the relative frequency is considered an approximation of the probability P (ai1ai2...aim) of the appearance of a given m-gram in a randomly selected place in the text (this approach is adopted in the statistical determination of probability).
The table below shows the frequency of occurrence of letters in Russian (as a percentage):
| Letter of the alphabet | Letter of the alphabet | Frequency rate | |
|---|---|---|---|
| A | 0,062 | R | 0,04 |
| IN | 0,038 | T | 0,053 |
| D | 0,025 | F | 0,002 |
| AND | 0,007 | C | 0,004 |
| AND | 0,062 | W | 0,006 |
| TO | 0,028 | b, b | 0,014 |
| M | 0,026 | E | 0,003 |
| ABOUT | 0,09 | I | 0,018 |
There is a mnemonic rule for remembering the ten most frequent letters of the Russian alphabet. These letters make up the word HAIL.
The frequency characteristics of bigrams, trigrams and fourgrams of meaningful texts are also stable. There are special tables indicating the frequency of digrams of some alphabets. Based on the results of research using such tables, scientists have identified the most common bigrams and trigrams for the Russian alphabet:
ST, BUT, EN, TO, ON, OV, NI, RA, IN, KO, STO, ENO, NOV, TOV, OVO, OVA.
It is also easy to extract information about the compatibility of letters from digram tables, i.e. about the preferred relationships of letters with each other.
The result of such studies is a table in which the most preferred "neighbors" are located to the left and to the right of each letter (in descending order of the frequency of the corresponding bigrams). Such tables usually also indicate the percentage of vowels and consonants that precede (or follow) a given letter.
| G | WITH | Left | On right | G | WITH | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 3 | 97 | l, d, k, t, v, r, n | A | l, n, s, t, r, v, k, m | 12 | 88 |
| 80 | 20 | i, e, y, i, a, oh | B | o, s, e, a, p, y | 81 | 19 |
| 68 | 32 | i, t, a, e, i, o | IN | o, a, i, s, s, n, l, r | 60 | 40 |
| 78 | 22 | p, y, a, i, e, o | G | o, a, r, l, i, v | 69 | 31 |
| 72 | 28 | p, i, y, a, i, e, o | D | e, a, i, o, n, y, r, v | 68 | 32 |
| 19 | 81 | m, i, l, d, t, r, n | E | n, t, r, s, l, v, m, i | 12 | 88 |
| 83 | 17 | p, e, i, a, y, o | AND | e, i, e, a, n | 71 | 29 |
| 89 | 11 | o, e, a, and | W | a, n, c, o, m, d | 51 | 49 |
| 27 | 73 | r, t, m, i, o, l, n | AND | s, n, c, i, e, m, k, h | 25 | 75 |
| 55 | 45 | b, c, e, o, a, i, s | TO | o, a, i, r, y, t, l, e | 73 | 27 |
| 77 | 23 | g, c, s, i, e, o, a | L | i, e, o, a, b, i, u, u | 75 | 25 |
| 80 | 20 | i, s, a, i, e, o | M | i, e, o, y, a, n, p, s | 73 | 27 |
| 55 | 45 | d, b, n, o | H | o, a, i, e, s, n, y | 80 | 20 |
| 11 | 89 | p, p, k, v, t, n | ABOUT | c, s, t, r, i, d, n, m | 15 | 85 |
| 65 | 35 | c, y, a, i, e, o | P | o, r, e, a, y, i, l | 68 | 32 |
| 55 | 45 | i, k, t, a, p, o, e | R | a, e, o, i, y, i, s, n | 80 | 20 |
| 69 | 31 | s, t, c, a, e, i, o | WITH | t, k, o, i, e, b, s, n | 32 | 68 |
| 57 | 43 | h, y, i, a, e, o, s | T | o, a, e, i, b, c, p, s | 63 | 37 |
| 15 | 85 | p, t, k, d, n, m, r | At | t, p, s, d, n, u, f | 16 | 84 |
| 70 | 30 | n, a, e, o, i | F | and, e, o, a, e, o, a | 81 | 19 |
| 90 | 10 | y, e, o, a, s, and | X | o, i, s, n, v, n, r | 43 | 57 |
| 69 | 31 | e, u, n, a, i | C | i, e, a, s | 93 | 7 |
| 82 | 18 | e, a, u, i, o | H | e, i, t, n | 66 | 34 |
| 67 | 33 | b, y, s, e, o, a, and, in | W | e, i, n, a, o, l | 68 | 32 |
| 84 | 16 | e, b, a, i, u | SCH | e, i, a | 97 | 3 |
| 0 | 100 | m, r, t, s, b, c, n | S | l, x, e, m, i, v, s, n | 56 | 44 |
| 0 | 100 | n, s, t, l | b | n, k, v, p, s, e, o, i | 24 | 76 |
| 14 | 86 | s, s, m, l, d, t, r, n | E | n, t, r, s, k | 0 | 100 |
| 58 | 42 | b, o, a, i, l, y | YU | d, t, u, c, n, p | 11 | 89 |
| 43 | 57 | o, n, r, l, a, i, s | I | c, s, t, p, d, k, m, l | 16 | 84 |
Example: Let's analyze the following text
"SOCRATES from Athens (469–399 BC) is the famous ancient philosopher, teacher of Plato, the embodiment of the ideal of a true sage in the historical memory of mankind. The name of Socrates is associated with the first fundamental division of the history of ancient philosophy into pre- and post-Socratic (" Presocratics"), reflecting the interest of the early philosophers of the 6th-5th centuries in natural philosophy, and the subsequent generation of sophists of the 5th century in ethical and political topics, the main of which is the upbringing of a virtuous person and citizen. Socrates was close to the sophistic movement. The teachings of Socrates were oral ; he spent all his free time in conversations with visiting sophists and local citizens, politicians and ordinary people, friends and strangers on topics that have become traditional for sophistic practice: what is good and what is evil, what is beautiful and what is ugly, what is virtue and what vice, is it possible to learn to be good and how knowledge is acquired. We know about these conversations mainly thanks to the students of Socrates - Xenophon and Plato. In addition to their writings, there are also fragments and evidence of the content of the "Socratic dialogues" of other Socrates, a parody image of Socrates in a comedy Aristophanes Clouds and a number of remarks about Socrates by Aristotle. The problem of the reliability of the image of Socrates in surviving works is the key issue of all studies about him.
in the input field this text and get the answer
Conducted text analysis
Number of characters in the text 1329
Number of spaces 179
Number of digits 6
Number of dots and commas 25
Number of English letters 4
Number of Russian letters 1094
Symbol-by-symbol statistics and frequency analysis
The symbol occurs 179 times. Frequency 13.47%
The symbol o occurs 130 times. Frequency 9.78%
The symbol and occurs 117 times. Frequency 8.80%
The symbol a occurs 88 times. Frequency 6.62%
The character e occurs 86 times. Frequency 6.47%
The symbol c occurs 70 times. Frequency 5.27%
The character n occurs 70 times. Frequency 5.27%
The symbol t occurs 70 times. Frequency 5.27%
The symbol p occurs 55 times. Frequency 4.14%
Search in the DPVA engineering handbook. Enter your request:
Additional information from the DPVA Engineering Handbook, namely other subsections of this section:
