Training content includes knowledge in close connection with abilities, skills, experience of creative activity and emotional and value-based attitude to the world. Its nature and scope are determined by the social order of the educational system. Each era shapes this content in accordance with its characteristic culture, philosophy and pedagogical theory. The main document that determines the content of various levels and areas of education is the state educational standard, on the basis of which curricula, programs, textbooks, etc. are developed. Thus, the content of general education gives a person the opportunity to participate in social, non-professional activities, forms a civic position, his attitude to the world and determining his place in it, and special education gives a person the knowledge and skills necessary in a specific field of activity.
Learning Objectives- organizing and directing the beginning of the educational process, determining its content, methods and forms. They include universal, social-group, individual and personal learning objectives. The objectives of learning change, as does the content of learning, as society changes and develops.
Subject of training- the central link in the system of elements of the learning process. A teacher who provides guidance to the activities of students acting as learning objects.
Content and learning objectives: standards, plans, programs, textbooks
Under content of training understands certain information that is used in the learning process. The content of training includes four main elements: knowledge, skills, experience of creative activity and experience of an emotional and value-based attitude to reality. The entire set of educational information is determined by the social order of the education system from the individual, society and the state and is adapted to the conditions of a given educational system. Each historical era, developing its own culture, creating pedagogical theories characteristic of it, rearranges the content of education accordingly.
The main documents that determine the content of education in modern educational systems are standards, curricula, programs and textbooks.
When determining the content of training, attention is paid to fulfilling the following basic requirements for this most important component of the learning process:
1. didactic processing educational material, its adaptation, adaptation to learning conditions, real time budget. This requirement presupposes careful consideration of those significant differences that always exist between this or that science and the corresponding academic subject. An academic discipline differs from a specific science both in the set of concepts and in the very logic of presentation. The skill of a teacher, his high professionalism is manifested not only in a deep knowledge of the content of a scientific discipline, but also in the art of selection, selecting from it that part that corresponds to specific learning conditions. Science turns into an educational subject only if it is synthesized and merged with didactics;
2. psychologization content of training suggests that when selecting educational information for its effective assimilation, it is necessary to take into account the psychological characteristics of students, their age characteristics and level of training.
But at the same time, both didactic and psychological processing of scientific material should in no case be carried out to the detriment of its objectivity and scientific character, which is one of the main difficulties in developing educational content;
3. security connections between theory and practice, teaching and upbringing suggests that even when determining the content of theoretical disciplines, such as mathematics, philosophy, etc., one should not be distracted from reality. Even an abstract, abstract theory in the educational process should, if possible, be combined with the formation of skills, the acquisition of creative experience, and the ability to correctly assess reality;
Learning Objectives
Problem learning objectives deserves to be discussed in more detail. The goal of learning is its defining, all-pervasive principle, influencing all its aspects: content, methods, means. The famous remark of the Roman philosopher Seneca that for a ship without a harbor, no wind will be fair, also applies to goal setting in the education system. Aimless learning will inevitably be fruitless. In different historical periods, in different countries, a wide variety of goals were set for learning, depending on the specifics of different eras, peoples and civilizations. The goals also differed in their scope; they could be universal, social-group, or individual-personal. However, in any educational system there was a main goal to which all others were subordinated, and which determined the entire character of this educational system. It is the goals of learning that distinguish one educational system from another.
The entire history of pedagogy can be represented as a chain of successive educational goals, their origin, implementation and death. There are no educational goals that are equally suitable for all times and peoples. Like everything in the world, they are mobile, changeable, and have a specific historical character. They are set and determined by the level of economic and cultural development of society, the achievements of philosophical and pedagogical thought, the capabilities of the existing system of educational institutions, and teaching staff.
Two types of education with opposite goals developed in Ancient Greece. They were based on polar ideas about comparative value individual and society.
Spartan type was focused primarily on the needs of society and the subordination of the interests of the individual to them.
Athenian type considered the personality and the comprehensive development of the abilities inherent in it by nature as the main goal of education. Even then, this second type of education revealed its high vitality. However, within its framework, as historical development progressed, two different options for defining the goals and objectives of training took shape:
- “communicating”, “reproductive” learning, which considers as the main goal of learning the acquisition of the fundamentals of the sciences, knowledge useful for life. This direction, which has survived to this day, is sometimes called academic;
- “Developmental”, “productive” training, as the main goal of training, indicates the development of thinking, logic, and creative abilities of the individual.
The truth in this debate seems to lie somewhere in the middle. Today, most experts in learning theory come to the conclusion that it is impossible to develop a person’s creative abilities without creating a solid base for him in the form of a certain amount of scientific knowledge. Based on the rich historical experience of defining constructive learning goals, modern didactics formulates them in the form of a set of the following tasks:
- students' mastery of a certain volume of knowledge about oneself, other people, nature. Moreover, we are talking not only about a certain sum of facts, but also about the need to explain the connections between them, as well as the ability to apply knowledge in specific situations, and ideally, the ability to solve problems based on knowledge from different fields;
- ability development students, their thinking, logic, memory, imagination, feelings, will, cognitive and practical skills; paramount importance is attached to the formation of the ability to self-educate, which is especially important in the modern era, when acquired knowledge quickly becomes outdated and continuous learning becomes necessary, including through self-study;
- mastering professional knowledge in the chosen specialty, preparation for creative work in one’s profession with the goal of achieving a high level of skill and maturity of professionalism in it;
- development cultural needs, civil, moral, aesthetic motivations and interests.
Setting learning goals guides teachers and students toward achieving the final learning outcome. A clear goal allows you to accurately select the content of training, highlight the main didactic units and teaching methods corresponding to them, streamline all aspects of the learning process, and give it the necessary integrity and unity.
Evidence of the decisive role of goal setting is the process of development of domestic education. For more than seventy years, Soviet pedagogy proclaimed high democratic goals: the education of a comprehensively and harmoniously developed personality, combining high mental development, moral purity and physical perfection. However, words often differed from deeds. In real life, individual rights and freedoms were suppressed, and the entire educational system was strictly subordinated to the monopolistic dominant ideology.
However, today there is no reason to abandon the previously declared goal, since there is no reasonable alternative to it. But when implementing it, it is necessary to take into account previously made mistakes.
In addition, some of its accents should be shifted. If earlier the main goal of training and education was the preparation of a specialist capable of working for the benefit of the state and society, today the emphasis will be on the task of self-realization of the individual, satisfying his needs. These changes contribute to the reunification of modern Russian education with the world and domestic humanistic tradition of education.
A national feature of Russian culture and education has long been increased attention to the inner world of man, his individual moral position. An outstanding philosopher of the XVIII century. G.S. Pan(1722-1794) urged his readers:
Throw the Copernican spheres.
Look into the soul caves...
What matters to you
You will find in yourself.
And in arranging this inner world of a person, the main task of education is to establish a positive attitude towards the world and people, the ideals of goodness and justice as the highest values. “We boldly express our conviction,” wrote K.D. Ushinsky“that moral influence is the main task of education, much more important than the development of the mind in general, filling the head with knowledge.” Another famous Russian teacher M.I. Demkov believed that religion and morality play a huge role in people's lives. Strengthening their influence is the task of moral and religious education.
Today there is no reason to abandon these traditional educational goals for Russia. It is only necessary to create conditions for their implementation.
- standards;
- plans;
- programs;
- textbooks.
Let us briefly consider the features of each of these documents.
1.Education standards, established, as a rule, by the state, determine the mandatory minimum of knowledge for a particular level or direction, specialty of training, as well as for each of the subjects of teaching. (RF Law “On Education”, Article 9, paragraph 6).
They indicate the amount of time required for training, a list of disciplines studied, a list of didactic units that determine the minimum content of each of them. At the same time, the list of disciplines is usually divided into cycles of social, humanitarian, natural science, special and other disciplines. Based on the ratio of time allocated to studying these cycles, one can judge the goals of a given educational system. Thus, an increase in time for the humanitarian cycle indicates a goal orientation towards humanization and democratization, which currently characterizes Russian education.
The standard is the initial and most stable part of the training content; all its content is based on it.
Through the creation and implementation of standards, the state realizes its leadership role in the education system. Compliance with standards is mandatory for all types of educational institutions, regardless of their form of ownership. The main purpose of their introduction is to prevent a decline in the level of education of citizens, to create equal conditions for obtaining education for all types of educational institutions, and to establish the same requirements for the knowledge, skills and abilities of graduates for all. Based on the standard, the quality of training is measured equally for everyone, and the Unified State Examination (USE) is carried out for graduates of secondary schools. The state educational standard is a kind of guarantee of the quality of education.
2.Educational plans are compiled on the basis of standards and specify their application in the real conditions of a given educational institution. To streamline this work, the state usually offers educational institutions of the same type standard curriculum, on the basis of which they develop their work plans. The standard plans for each area or level of training indicate federal, regional and individual (for a specific university or school) components. On their basis, educational institutions of individual regions (republics, territories, regions), individual educational institutions are given the right to develop individual work plans, subject to compliance with educational standards. This solves the dual problem of, on the one hand, preserving a unified educational space in the country, and on the other, creating conditions for differentiated learning that take into account the specific needs of individual student populations, i.e. the most important principle of social development is being implemented: unity in diversity.
A working curriculum is the main document of an educational institution, defining the total duration, duration of the academic year, semesters, holidays, examination sessions, a complete list of subjects studied and the amount of time allocated to each of them, the structure and duration of workshops. The curriculum is the application of state standards to the specific conditions of a given educational institution.
3. Training program- one of the main documents that determine the content of training. It is compiled for each of the subjects included in the curriculum and on the basis of the state standard for the corresponding academic discipline. The curriculum, as a rule, contains an introduction outlining the goals of studying a given subject, basic requirements for the knowledge, skills and abilities of students, a thematic plan for studying the material with its distribution by time and types of training sessions, a list of necessary teaching aids, visual aids, and recommended literature. The main part of the program is a list of topics to be studied, indicating the basic concepts that make up the content of each topic. The programs also include data on the forms of course study (lectures, lessons, seminars, practical classes), as well as information on the forms of control.
Programs are developed by university departments, subject associations of schools and are the main guiding documents for the work of teachers.
One of the modern innovations in this matter is the granting of the right to individual teachers to create alternative educational programs in the same educational institution, taking into account the characteristics of groups of students with different levels of development and nature of interests. However, methods for the practical application of such programs are still poorly developed.
4. Textbook - It is also one of the main carriers of the content of education. The textbook reflects in detail the content of education in a particular subject. The textbook is created in accordance with the standard and program for this discipline, which is usually certified by the corresponding stamp of the state supervisory authority. Today, textbooks can be presented not only in printed but also in electronic form. Electronic textbooks, the so-called computer training programs (CTPs), are especially widely used in distance learning in the form of cassettes, disks, and Internet sites.
The textbook, whatever form it is presented in, is designed to perform several functions:
- informational, consisting of presenting the amount of knowledge that is determined by the corresponding curriculum;
- educational, with the help of which the cognitive actions of the student are controlled. For this purpose, the textbook contains questions, exercises, and assignments:
- test, which is presented in the form of control tests, assignments, etc.
Ideally, a textbook should serve as a model of the entire educational process.
In any case, a good textbook must meet such basic requirements as brevity, accessibility, structure, i.e. clear division into blocks, modules, etc.
Unfortunately, many modern textbooks, both printed and electronic, are limited only to the first of these functions, i.e. They provide only educational information and do not show how to work with it, leaving it up to the reader to decide, who is not always ready for this.
To ensure high-quality assimilation of the content of educational subjects, other types of educational literature are published: reference books, books for additional reading, atlases, collections of problems and exercises, etc. Learning outcomes largely depend on the quality of educational literature. The need for integrated use of various types of educational information, both on paper and electronic media, is recognized, since each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages.
It should be emphasized that, despite all the importance of the content of training for the overall results of educational activities, this factor is still not the most important. It is recognized that of the three main factors influencing the quality of training - the quality of the teacher’s work, the level of activity of students and the content of training - this last factor ranks only third in importance. In the first place is the effectiveness of the teacher. It is the teacher who is the central figure of the entire educational process.
“In education,” said Ushinsky, “everything should be based on the personality of the educator, because educational power flows only from a living source.” human personality. No charters and programs, no artificial mechanism of the institution, no matter how cunningly invented, can replace personalities in the matter of education."
Therefore, along with the content of training, another and more important didactic problem is the problem of the quality of the teacher’s activities, the teaching methods he uses, on which the overall effectiveness of any education system primarily depends.
The essence and structure of learning goals. Goal setting. As noted above, the leading structural component of the learning process is the goal. Taking it into account, the content, forms, methods and means of teaching are selected. By analogy with determining the purpose of education The purpose of training- this is an ideal prediction, predicting the result of training. Since this is a prediction of the result, then there is a need to detect and measure these results. Therefore, the requirement for diagnostics is imposed on the goals, i.e. verifiability of their achievement. To make goals diagnostic, it is necessary to determine the criteria for achieving each goal and outline ways to evaluate learning outcomes. Although here we are faced with a contradiction, the goals of learning always imply movement in internal development, and we can judge the achievement of these results only by external signs.
Determining the objectives of learning (teaching and learning) at its various stages is called goal setting. Goal setting also allows you to determine an adequate teaching technology and a system of criteria for assessing the results obtained. In order to consciously set learning goals and use them in building the learning process, you need to know their structure, types of goals and goal-setting methods. From the point of view of traditional didactics, the structure of the learning goal is constant, it consists of a target object, a target subject and a target action, it determines its algorithm. Target object(object of learning goal) here the student is in different role positions that are expected to be influenced. By addressing one or another role position of the student, the teacher brings his pedagogical goals closer to his goals and motivates his teaching. Target item– this is that side of the student’s personality that must be transformed in this learning process (his knowledge, skills, qualities). The target subject answers the question: what needs to change in the student? It is the subject of the goal that the teacher changes; the effectiveness of the learning process is judged by the degree of change in the subject of the goal. Target action denotes a specific action the teacher takes to change the target subject. For example, reveal, interest, prove, etc. The target action is determined by the ability to completely complete it during the period of time during which the learning process takes place.
Thus, in traditional didactics, goal setting is considered as a process of assignment (interiorization) of externally specified goals.
Modern didactics proceeds from the fact that the student is the subject of learning, therefore, each student’s education should be based on and taking into account his personal educational goals. According to I.A. Ozerkova and A.V. Khutorsky, goal setting at the present stage is a key competency of the learning process.
On the hierarchy and systematization of learning objectives. Where do learning objectives come from, who formulates them? Obviously, the one who is the “consumer” of education, and this, first of all, is each specific person, individual. This also includes family and parents; school; region, local society, state and society, humanity as a whole. Moreover, each of the listed categories of persons has its own interests that are not identical to each other. They should be considered as independent, equally important and ideally forming a harmonious combination, for which it is necessary to identify their relationship, intersection, and interaction.
Thus, among the educational goals from which learning goals follow, we can highlight state regulatory goals. These goals reflect the order of society towards the level of education and upbringing of the younger generation, universal human ideals, and national traditions. However, the requirements of society change as it develops, and therefore goals are refined and updated over time. The state goal as a long-term result is transformed into the general goals of education facing the school and is enshrined in the State Education Standards. As a result, goals acquire not generalized, but specific, diagnosable formulations.
In parallel, and often independently of state ones, there are public goals, as the goals of various sectors of society. Unlike state ones, they cannot be united. They are formed in the form of the needs, interests and public opinion of different groups of people. These requests are taken into account when developing the school component of educational documentation.
The next type of target is initiative goals, which are formed in educational institutions taking into account their characteristics. These include the school's educational goals, yearly subject goals, lesson goals, and student goals. At this level, the general goal of education is specified in the educational goal of the educational institution, taking into account: a) the actual conditions of the school; b) the abilities and capabilities of the students themselves, i.e. It is important to establish not only what they should, but also what they can achieve in the learning process. This procedure can be represented schematically:
Scheme 1. Procedure for specifying educational goals.
The next stage of specifying the educational goals of the school occurs at the level of the academic subject, where they are divided into the goals of the academic subject, which is studied throughout the entire period of study, the goals of teaching this subject throughout the year, and the goals of teaching specific sections and topics.
The last stage of specifying goals is the goals of individual classes and lessons.
As we see, in didactics the concepts of “education goals” and “learning goals” are distinguished. The concept of “goal of education” is broader than the concept of “goal of learning,” which is more specific. In what follows we will deal mainly with learning objectives.
In addition, the entire set of pedagogical goals forms a certain hierarchy, where each subsequent level is part of the previous one. Various types of pedagogical goals can be represented schematically as follows:
|
Regulatory state |
Public |
Initiative |
Scheme 2. Hierarchy of pedagogical goals.
Learning goals can be systematized and based on time into strategic (remote); tactical (close) and operational (close).
As mentioned above, each goal has its own subject, i.e. what is expected to be developed in the student. Considering that the learning process performs the following functions - training, education and development, we can talk about three groups of goals in the learning process. The learning objectives include goals aimed at the formation of knowledge; educational - goals aimed at shaping the orientation of the individual during the learning process: his beliefs, ideals, aspirations, interests and desires; developmental – goals aimed at acquiring abilities, developing speech, thinking, and new personal qualities. However, these are not three different goals, but a comprehensive goal that involves achieving the goals of training, education and development in the learning process. This grouping of goals is currently generally accepted in Russian didactics. However, there are opinions that such a grouping of goals should be abandoned. For example, V.S. Bezrukova believes that with this approach, the goals of education are understood only as the formation of relationships, which does not correspond to the scope of the basic concept of “upbringing”, narrowing it, and the goals of education are understood as parallel and not intersecting with the goals of education, which contradicts the scientific correlation of these concepts. In her opinion, the goals of development generally cannot be adjacent to the goals of training and education, since initially development occurs through education and training. She proposes to group learning goals in accordance with the structure of the social experience conveyed to students:
Goals of developing knowledge, skills and abilities;
The goals of forming relationships;
The goals of the formation of creative activity.
Approach V.S. Bezrukova is interesting in that the goals of learning reflect the structure of human experience; these goals easily arise in the learning process and can be the goals of the student.
S. Manukyan also suggests abandoning the idea of three equivalent and independent lesson goals. Instead of identifying three separate lesson goals, he proposes to identify and set educational goals, taking into account the possibilities of the educational material for the development of certain qualities of a person’s personality and the need for such a goal for a given class at a given time. After this, it is necessary to determine those educational tasks, the solution of which ensures the assimilation of the material in such a way that it becomes possible to achieve the goals of developmental education, which are the strategic goals of the educational process. This approach to determining the goals of lessons does not take into account the modern interpretation of the concept of “education,” which is considered today as the broadest pedagogical category. This concept includes the entire process of the formation of a person as a social being - training (self-education), education (self-education), development (self-development).
Along with learning objectives, another term is used - learning objective, lesson objective, etc. Often they are used to refer to the same concept, i.e. as identical terms. However, they should be distinguished. The term “goal” is used, as already noted, to denote the desired, predicted learning outcomes. The term “task” is used to denote what specifically needs to be done to achieve these results.
For example, the general goal facing the school is formulated as follows: to promote the mental, moral, emotional and physical development of the individual, to reveal his creative potential. And the tasks of a comprehensive school are approximately the following: the formation in students of a knowledge system determined by social and industrial needs; formation of a scientific worldview, political, legal culture, humanistic values and ideals; the formation of creative thinking and independence.
Of course, the use of these terms must be approached dialectically. What is a task can act as a goal, but a more local one, to achieve which, in turn, it is necessary to define more specific tasks.
One of the defining components of the learning process is its purpose. The goal of learning is an ideal mental prediction of the final result of the learning process; this is what the teacher and students strive for. The general goal of education is determined by society. It is reflected in government documents and then specified in programs for individual academic subjects, textbooks, teaching aids for teachers, and teaching materials for students. In addition to the general goal, learning goals for a particular subject, the teacher determines individual tasks for each lesson.
The organization of the learning process is primarily associated with a clear definition of its goals, as well as the awareness and acceptance of them by students. Learning targets cause students to understand the essence and methods of organizing educational and cognitive activities, significantly influencing their activation.
Both in the learning process and during each training session, three main groups of interrelated goals are realized. The first of them includes entire educational ones: mastering knowledge, abilities, skills; to the second - developmental goals: the development of the intellectual, emotional-volitional, activity-behavioral sphere of the individual, to the third - educational goals: the formation of a scientific worldview, moral, artistic-aesthetic, legal, labor, environmental culture, etc.
This means that when designing a training session, the teacher must clearly define the objectives of training, development and education. At the same time, he specifies the level at which the goals will be implemented: general familiarization with a new topic, mastery of the theoretical aspect of what is being studied, the formation of practical skills, knowledge testing, etc.. Bringing to the consciousness of students the objectives of the educational lesson increases the possibility of intensifying cognitive activity schoolchildren, their conscious and consistent work throughout the lesson.
The following general learning objectives in the national education system can be defined:
to form the identity of the student as a citizen of the state;
teach students as subjects to learn effectively, instill in them the optimal methods of teaching and self-study, and create the need for constant creative self-improvement;
equip students with the knowledge, skills and abilities that are necessary for successful professional and social activities.
create the most favorable conditions for the mental, moral, emotional and physical development of the individual, comprehensively developing his abilities, while ensuring that students receive solid knowledge, the fundamentals of science and the ability to independently replenish them;
provide universal education at a level that meets the rapid development of science and allows adaptation to the modern world;
to realize the idea of general, intellectual, moral development of the individual by means of humanitarization of education;
to educate a highly developed citizen on the basis of universal moral values, capable of an active life, work, and creativity;
follow international requirements for building programs for children with high intellectual abilities: deepening the content of programs, developing a high level of thought processes, developing students’ understanding of their own abilities;
to form a personality with developed intelligence and a high level of culture, ready to make an informed choice and master professional educational programs.
The educational process involves close interaction between teacher and student. The main functions of training are educational, educational and developmental.
The educational function in traditional education is basic and involves equipping students, first of all, with a certain system of knowledge, skills and abilities.
The main disadvantage of such training is its impersonality: The traditional education system is based on a sociocentric approach, within which the goal of personal development is its socialization and professionalization from the standpoint of maximum social usefulness. Within the framework of this model, the idea is realized that the main goal of education (training, teaching) is the mastery of certain knowledge, skills and abilities, that is, externally specified standards.
The humanistic paradigm of the national education system has a personal direction, and, accordingly, the student in the educational process acts as an integral personality. According to the Russian psychologist V. Davydov, personality should be understood as an amateur subject, as an individual who reproduces social connections and has creative opportunities for their further transformation. He emphasizes that, relying on the personal qualities acquired earlier, he acts creatively (“freely”) and talentedly, creating new forms of social life. The subjectivity of the student in the educational process is substantiated by V. Rybak, G.K. Selevko.
The humanistic concept of education is holistic, i.e. is devoid of the statistical, impersonal approach to a person that arises in this case.
The humanistic paradigm of education has united not only philosophers, but also psychologists, teachers, and sociologists on the path of searching for the meaning of human existence, self-actualization, creativity, freedom of choice, integrity, integrative thinking, and human management of one’s own development. According to G.K. Selevko, a personal approach to students in the educational process is the core direction of progressive pedagogical technologies, which unites and embodies the following educational ideas and principles:
The idea of personality development, or personal orientation of upbringing and education;
Universal principles of humanism;
The idea of democratization of pedagogical relations as the basis for the formation of a democratic personality;
Deepening the individual approach;
The principle of natural conformity of training and education;
The idea of activating and using internal self-regulating mechanisms of personality development.
Therefore, now the educational function is losing its leading role, giving way to the functions of educational, developmental and self-improvement. This is the demand of the day. Education, taking into account the rapid changes, must provide the prerequisites for the learning process throughout life according to the “on-off” type.
The educational function is inseparable from the educational one and is aimed at ensuring the unity of the educational process in various educational systems and at its humanization. “Training and upbringing are closely related to each other, complement each other, intertwine with each other,” emphasizes academician D. Yarmachenko.
This function contributes to the formation of the basic features of a citizen of the state. “A person without education is like a body without a soul,” according to popular wisdom. “Humanistic orientation does not question the importance of professional knowledge, skills and abilities, but, firstly, it emphasizes their role as means, tools for realizing the orientation of the individual, and secondly, in this instrumental role, knowledge, skills and abilities are complemented by strategies of creative activity , as well as the volitional qualities necessary to overcome the difficulties standing in the way of this realization; thirdly, the means that ensure personal (in particular professional) self-improvement acquire greater importance,” emphasizes G.A. Point.
I.D. Bekh considers the strategic direction of education to be its personality-oriented orientation, which can “significantly humanize the educational process, fill it with high moral and spiritual experiences, establish relationships of justice and respect, maximize the child’s potential, and stimulate him to personally developing creativity.”
The humanistic paradigm of the national education system, modern concepts of teaching, processes of humanization and democratization of education also provide for the need for this function to come to the fore in the didactic process. The most important thing in the humanistic approach is the formation in students not only of normative knowledge, but above all the mechanisms of self-learning and self-education, taking into account the maximum involvement of the individual abilities of each student. In this regard, this function becomes the main one next to the developmental one. I.D. Bekh, in a personality-oriented approach, draws attention to helping the student as a subject of the pedagogical process to realize “... himself as an individual, which should become the key task of the teacher...”, G.A. Score - for “...paying main attention to the value-motivational core of the individual, which determines its orientation, in particular professional”, A. Sysoeva - for “...personal and professional growth of a person in the process of receiving his education.”
The developmental function, especially for the spiritual, mental and physical development of the student, has a deep socio-psychological and pedagogical meaning. The meaning and purpose of education is to ensure the constant development of the student, his spiritual formation, harmonization of relationships with himself and others, with the social environment. Thus, education at the state level creates conditions for the development and self-development, education and self-education, teaching and self-education of everyone.
In the process of studying various academic subjects, the students’ spiritual and mental abilities are purposefully developed, and practical classes, in addition, ensure the development of physical strength.
The development of the student’s personality in a humane approach to the organization of the educational process should put at the center “... the development of the entire integral set of personality qualities: knowledge, abilities, skills, methods of mental action, the self-governing mechanism of the individual, the sphere of aesthetics and morality and the sphere of effective-practical.” This development is the main result of education, a criterion for the quality of work of a teacher, the head of the pedagogical system as a whole.
The function of self-improvement should ensure the constant self-education of students, self-education, systematic formation of learning skills, as well as motivation for educational, cognitive and future professional activities. The selection of this function means the orientation of education to the European and world educational levels, in pedagogical theories in which special attention is paid to self-improvement, self-determination, self-realization of the individual, achieving success in life (self-cultivation, self-determination, self-realization, self-made) . Therefore, in Western European and American pedagogical theories, the term “personality formation” is used less and less.
I.S. Kohn emphasizes that the effectiveness of specific methods of education and training should be assessed by the extent to which they prepare the new generation for independent creative activity, pose and solve new problems that did not and could not exist in the experience of previous generations.
Thus, the implementation of these four functions is a confirmation of one of the main laws of the pedagogical process - the unity of teaching, upbringing, development and self-improvement.
Thus, the functions determine the purpose of the didactic process and answer the question: “Why are students taught in various educational systems?”
The learning process is the central issue of didactics; in this process, its “actors” are brought together into a single unit: the teacher and the student, their goals, as well as the content, forms, methods, means and other attributes of educational activity.
In the literature there are terms and concepts: “didactic process”, “learning process”. This is what they call general synonymous concepts. We will not separate them further. But there is also the term “educational process,” meaning learning in specific conditions, and the term “learning course,” meaning a single process.
The learning process is a system of sequential educational actions of the teacher to achieve a cognitive result and a corresponding sequential change in the mental development of the student. Learning is a social and pedagogical phenomenon. It performs educational, educational and personality development functions. Since the process is movement, advancement, the question arises about its driving forces. Prominent Soviet didactician M.A. Danilov concluded (1960) that the main driving force of the learning process is contradictions. Other didactics (V.I. Zagvyazinsky, I.Ya. Lerner, M.N. Skatkin, etc.) supported this idea. Contradictions are external and internal. The first are those that arise outside of the individual, although they relate to its development: between the needs of society to prepare the younger generation for life and the current level of this preparation.
Content:
Content, structure and main stages of education
Patterns of learning
Goals and functions of training
The concept of "education"
The essence of the learning process
Contents of the learning process
Principles and rules of training
Forms of training
Types of training
Means of education
Teaching methods
Problem-based learning
Education technology
The essence of the learning process
Control during the learning process
Contents of education
Subject and objectives of didactic research
Contents and forms of didactics
Basic methods and forms of training
Teaching aids in a modern school
Technological education for schoolchildren
Verbal and visual teaching methods
Types of training
Monitoring and assessing the quality of training
Contents, structure
and basic stages of education
Education this is a socially organized and standardized process (and its result) of the constant transmission by previous generations of subsequent generations of socially significant experience, which in ontogenetic terms represents the formation of personality in accordance with the genetic program and socialization of the individual.
a) knowledge about nature, society, technology, thinking and methods of activity;
b) experience in implementing known methods of activity, embodied together with knowledge in the skills of the individual who has mastered this experience;
c) experience in creative, exploratory activities to solve new problems arising in society;
d) the experience of a value relationship to objects or means of human activity, its manifestation in relation to the surrounding world, to other people in the totality of needs that determine the emotional perception of personally defined objects included in its value system.
Main stages of education:
1. Preschool. It is represented by a system of preschool institutions. According to American sociologists and educators, if you apply the entire pedagogical arsenal in preschool age, then eight out of ten children will study at school at the level of gifted children.
2. School. The next level is school, primary – 3–4 years of study, basic – 5 years of study, secondary school – two more years of study. School is the main basic institution in the modern education system, the greatest achievement of civilization.
3. Extracurricular education. We include all kinds of out-of-school institutions: music and sports schools, stations for young tourists, naturalists, centers for technical and artistic creativity. Their activities ensure the comprehensive development of the personality of the child and adolescent.
4. Vocational education – vocational school, represented by technical schools, vocational schools, and now also colleges, universities of various types.
5. Postgraduate education – postgraduate studies, doctoral studies, obtaining a second specialty, institutes and faculties of advanced training, internships, etc.
6. Higher education. Fundamentally new for domestic higher professional education is the formative multi-stage system: bachelor, specialist, master. What is attractive is its flexibility, the opportunity for young people to get involved in professional activities at different levels of education, the integration of secondary and higher vocational educational institutions.
6. Non-state educational institutions. New forms of education appear in the form of independent structures or special divisions of state educational institutions.
Functions of education:
1. function of social mobility - it has the potential for selection and predisposition of a person to certain forms of professional and social activities;
2. function of social control. The school educates law-abiding citizens. At the same time, the school also exercises direct social control over the behavior and education of the younger generation;
3. the function of cultural transmission, when education acts as a generator and guardian of the cultural heritage of society;
4. function of social selection - education serves as a mechanism for securing an individual to a certain group, stratum, system;
5. ideological function - it was described by Bourdieu. Any government seeks to strengthen its position through ideology, which is transmitted to society through the education system.
In its structural section, education, as well as training, is a triune process, characterized by such aspects as assimilation of experience, education of behavioral qualities, physical and mental development.
REGULARITIES OF TRAINING
Education is a system of organizing ways of transmitting to an individual socio-historical experience developed in the process of social practice: knowledge, skills, abilities, types and methods of activity in indicators that are normative for specific historical conditions. The purpose of this activity is the systematic and directed mental development of the individual. Learning takes place in the form of cooperation, joint activity of the teacher and the student.
Education, both for students and for teachers, is one of the types of knowledge of the world around us. Learning, as a type of cognitive activity, is the initial, most essential feature on which the characteristics of all educational activities depend. Learning is based on general laws of cognition.
Human cognition goes through a number of stages. At the beginning sensual cognition, which leads to a variety of ideas about the natural and social phenomena, events, and objects surrounding the child. The more systematized and generalized these sensory images are, the higher his learning ability in terms of cognitive capabilities is.
Second phase - abstract cognition, mastery of a system of concepts. The student’s cognitive activity becomes one-sided. He studies certain aspects of the world around him through the content of educational subjects. If, with concrete, sensory cognition, a figurative picture appears in the child’s mind, for example, of a forest and its inhabitants, murmuring brooks, fluttering butterflies, then abstract cognition leads to concepts, rules, theorems, and evidence. Numbers, definitions, formulas appear in the mind. The junior schoolchild is at the stage of transition of cognition from the concrete to the abstract. He begins to master conceptual forms of thinking.
The concrete and abstract in the cognitive activity of students act as contradictory forces and create different trends in mental development. The teacher needs to know the mechanisms of the emergence and resolution of contradictions in order to skillfully manage the learning process.
There is a highest stage of cognition, when, on the basis of abstract, highly developed thinking, a generalized idea of the world around us is formed, leading to the formation of views, beliefs, and worldviews. Training significantly accelerates the pace of the student’s individual psychological development. A student learns in a short period of time what takes centuries to learn in the history of mankind.
OBJECTIVES AND FUNCTIONS OF TRAINING
Education is a system of organizing ways of transmitting to an individual socio-historical experience developed in the process of social practice: knowledge, skills, abilities, types and methods of activity in indicators that are normative for specific historical conditions. The purpose of this activity is the systematic and directed mental development of the individual. Learning takes place in the form of cooperation, joint activity of the teacher and the student. The teacher, through communication and other means, organizes the student’s activities that are adequate to the learning goals. The learner initially performs it as a joint, distributed activity, and then, in the process of internalization, this joint external and expanded activity becomes the internal and minimized activity of the student himself.
Learning as a creative process. Learning will become a creative process for both students and teachers if it is structured from the very beginning as an exploratory activity by the children themselves.
Traditional training. A characteristic feature of traditional learning is its focus on the past, on those storehouses of social experience where knowledge is stored, organized in a specific type of educational information. Hence the orientation of learning towards memorizing material.
Training functions
1. Educational - associated with the assimilation of knowledge, skills (associated with the expansion of volume).
Knowledge is the understanding, storage in memory and reproduction of the facts of science, laws, concepts, theories. They must become the property of the individual, enter the structure of his experience. The most complete implementation of this function should ensure the completeness, systematicity and awareness of knowledge, their strength and validity.
2. Educational – the formation of a value attitude towards material things (with the formation of relationships - worldview).
The educational function follows from the very content, forms and methods of teaching, but at the same time it is also carried out through a special organization of communication between the teacher and students. The implementation of this function is required in the organization of the educational process, the selection of content, forms and methods.
3. Developmental – establishing close relationships between phenomena and factors.
The developmental function is carried out more effectively when the interaction between teacher and students is specifically focused on the comprehensive development of the individual.
Educational:
– formulate the concept of fabric among students; introduce the main types of fabrics, their structural features and functions;
– indicate the connection between the structure and the functions performed.
Educational:
– continue the formation of a scientific worldview based on the connection between the structure and the functions performed;
– continue to develop interest in the subject within the framework of the topic being studied.
Educational:
– continue to develop the ability to compare, generalize, and establish cause-and-effect relationships.
The concept of "education".
types and ways of obtaining it
Under education we understand this aspect of education, which consists in mastering the system of scientific and cultural values accumulated by humanity, in mastering the system of cognitive skills, forming on their basis a worldview, morality, behavior, moral and other qualities of the individual, developing his creative powers and abilities, preparation for social life and work. The content of education includes all elements of social experience.
Depending on the goals, nature and level of training, secondary, general, polytechnic, vocational and higher education are distinguished. The knowledge, skills and abilities necessary for every person are provided by a comprehensive school. The knowledge, skills and abilities necessary for a worker of a certain profession are acquired by him in special educational institutions. The content and methodology of general education ensure the formation of cognitive interests and skills in schoolchildren necessary for work, further education and self-education, serve as the basis for polytechnic and vocational education and are carried out in close relationship with them.
Education can be achieved in different ways. This can be independent reading, radio and television programs, courses, lectures, work in production, etc. But the most correct and reliable way is systematically organized education, which aims to provide a person with a normal and complete education. The content of education is determined by state curricula, curricula and textbooks in the subjects studied.
Systematic training plays a leading role in the implementation of education, which is carried out in a certain organization under the guidance of a specially trained person (teacher, educator, leader, instructor).
Education is a holistic pedagogical process, during which the tasks of education are solved, the upbringing and development of students is carried out. This process is primarily two-way. On the one hand, it has a teacher (teacher), who sets out the program material and manages this process, and on the other hand, students, for whom this process takes on the character of teaching, mastering the material being studied. Their joint activities are aimed at a deep and lasting assimilation of scientific knowledge, the development of skills and abilities, their application in practice, the development of creative abilities, the formation of a materialistic worldview and moral and aesthetic views and beliefs.
ESSENCE OF THE LEARNING PROCESS
Education as a social phenomenon is a purposeful, organized, systematic transfer to the older and assimilation by the younger generation of the experience of social relations, social consciousness, culture of productive labor, knowledge about active transformation and environmental protection.
Learning consists of two inextricably linked phenomena: teaching adults and educational work, called the teaching of children. Teaching is a special activity of adults aimed at transferring the amount of knowledge, skills and abilities to children and educating them in the learning process. Teaching is a specially organized, active independent cognitive, labor and aesthetic activity of children, aimed at mastering knowledge, skills, development of mental processes and abilities.
The social, pedagogical, psychological essence of education is most fully and vividly manifested in its practically expedient functions. Among them, the most significant is the educational function. The main meaning of the educational function is to equip students with a system of scientific knowledge, skills and abilities and its use in practice. The end result of the implementation of the educational function is the effectiveness of knowledge, expressed in the conscious operation of them, in the ability to mobilize previous knowledge to obtain new ones, as well as the formation of the most important both special (in the subject) and general educational skills and abilities.
Skills are formed as a result of exercises that vary the conditions of educational activity and provide for its gradual complication. To develop skills, repeated exercises in the same conditions are necessary. The educational function organically follows from the very content, forms and methods of teaching, but at the same time it is also carried out through a special organization of communication between the teacher and students. Properly delivered teaching always develops, but the developmental function is carried out more effectively with a special focus on the interaction between teachers and students on the comprehensive development of the individual. The career guidance function of education has also acquired a relevant meaning.
CONTENT OF THE TRAINING PROCESS
Learning as a process is a purposeful, active learning interaction between teachers and students, organized using special methods and various forms. The learning process has a clear structure. Its leading element is the goal. In addition to the general and main goal - transferring to children a body of knowledge, skills and abilities, developing the mental strength of students - the teacher constantly sets himself specific tasks to ensure that schoolchildren deeply assimilate a specific amount of knowledge, skills and abilities. The psychological and pedagogical significance of the goal lies in the fact that it organizes and mobilizes the creative forces of the teacher, helps to select and choose the most effective content, methods and forms of work. In the educational process, the goal “works” most intensively when it is well understood not only by the teacher, but also by the children.
The structural element of the educational process, around which the pedagogical action unfolds, the interaction of its participants, is the content of the social experience assimilated by children. The content of the educational process as a system may have a different structure of presentation. Elements of structure are individual knowledge or its elements that can “link” together in various ways. The most common currently are linear, concentric, spiral and mixed structures for presenting content.
With a linear structure, individual parts of educational material form a continuous sequence of closely interconnected links, which are studied, as a rule, only once during schooling.
The concentric structure involves returning to the knowledge being studied. The same question is repeated several times, and its content is gradually expanded and enriched with new information.
A characteristic feature of the spiral structure of presentation is that students, without losing sight of the original problem, gradually expand and deepen the range of knowledge related to it.
Mixed structure - a combination of linear, concentric and spiral structures.
The central figure, the system-forming beginning of the learning process, is the teacher - the bearer of the content of education and upbringing, the organizer of all cognitive activities of children. His personality combines objective and subjective pedagogical values. The main participant, the most active self-developing subject of the educational process is the child himself, the student. He is the very object and subject of pedagogical knowledge for the sake of which the learning process is created. The process of learning, the child’s mastery of a system of knowledge, skills and abilities is divided into inextricably dialectically interconnected stages of cognition. The first stage is perception and assimilation. Based on perception, comprehension is carried out, ensuring understanding and assimilation of the material. The second stage absorbs the results of initial assimilation in a generalized form and creates the basis for deepening knowledge. It is characterized as assimilation-reproduction. Perception, assimilation and primary reproduction of educational material create the opportunity to implement the third stage of cognition - the creative practical application of knowledge.
An important element of the educational process is the student body as an object of the teacher’s educational influence and a subject of cognition. The form of education is a time-limited and spatially organized cognitive joint activity of teachers and students. The leading form of teaching is a lesson. The accompanying forms are varied: laboratory and practical classes, seminar, lecture, individual and group training, circle. An organic element of the structure of the learning process is the independent extracurricular (home, library, club) work of students to assimilate mandatory and freely received information and self-education.
The final element of the structure of the learning process is pedagogical diagnostics. Diagnostic methods include individual and frontal oral interviews, a variety of independent written works, and practical tasks of a reproducing and creative nature.
PRINCIPLES AND RULES OF TRAINING
Under training in modern science and pedagogical practice, we understand the active, purposeful process of transferring (translating) to a student the sociocultural experience of previous generations (knowledge, norms, generalized methods of action, etc.) and the organization of mastering this experience, as well as the opportunity and readiness to apply this experience in various situations . Training, accordingly, presupposes as its condition the process of learning or teaching as the mastery of this experience.
In accordance with the above reasons traditional training can be characterized as contact (maybe remote), informing, based on the principle of consciousness (awareness of the very subject of mastery - knowledge), purposefully uncontrolled, built on a disciplinary-subject principle, non-contextual (in the higher education system - without purposeful modeling of future professional activity during the educational process).
Problem-based learning based on the acquisition of new knowledge by students through solving theoretical and practical problems, tasks in the problematic situations created by this.
Programmed learning is based on general and specific didactic principles of consistency, accessibility, systematicity, and independence. These principles are implemented during the implementation of the main element of programmed training - a training program, which is an ordered sequence of tasks.
It is currently becoming quite widespread in professional (higher and secondary) education. sign-contextual, or contextual learning. In this training, information is presented in the form of educational texts (“signs”), and tasks constructed on the basis of the information contained in them set the context for future professional activity.
Learning principles
1. The principle of the developmental and educational nature of education is aimed at the comprehensive development of the student’s personality and individuality.
2. The principle of scientific content and methods of the educational process reflects the relationship with modern scientific knowledge.
3. The principle of systematicity and consistency in mastering the achievements of science, culture, experience, and activity.
4. The principle of consciousness, creative activity and independence of students under the guidance of a teacher.
5. The principle of clarity.
6. The principle of accessibility of training.
7. The principle of strength of learning results.
8. The principle of connecting learning with life.
9. The principle of a rational combination of individual and collective forms and methods of student activity.
The principle of visibility.
The effectiveness of learning depends on the feasibility of involving the senses in the perception and processing of educational material. J. Komensky: “In the learning process, children should be given the opportunity to observe, measure, and conduct experiments.”
Types of visualization along the line of increasing abstraction:
1. Natural visibility.
2. Experimental (experiments, experiments).
3. Volumetric (models, layouts).
4. Fine (paintings, photographs, drawings).
5. Sound.
6. Symbolic or graphic (graphs, diagrams).
7. Internal (images created by the teacher’s speech).
FORMS OF TRAINING
Form is a special design of the learning process. Classifications according to the number and composition of students, place of study, duration of student work. For these reasons, forms of education are divided into: individual, individual-group, collective, classroom and extracurricular, school and extracurricular. The oldest one is individual. “+” – allows you to individualize content, methods and pace. “–” – uneconomical, limits cooperation with other students. Individual-group – group lessons (not including all children). Classroom - students of the same age and level of training make up a class. The class follows one annual plan and program according to a permanent schedule. The basic unit of the lesson is the lesson. “+” – clear organization, easy management, training according to an in-depth program, the ability for students to interact with each other. “–” – targeting the average student; Difficulties in taking into account individual characteristics; there is no connection between learning and real life. The Bell-Lancaster system of peer teaching: older students learned the material under the guidance of a teacher, and then taught those who knew less. “–” – the quality of learning is low. Batovskaya - part 1 - lesson work, part 2 - individual lessons with students who need such lessons. The most common form is a lesson, excursion, clubs, Olympiads, competitions, extracurricular, extracurricular forms.
Extracurricular forms of training. Their characteristics
These are subject clubs, scientific societies, and Olympiads. competitions, etc. The work is carried out on a voluntary basis, the composition of students is heterogeneous. Subject teacher's guides, invited specialists. Contents: in-depth study of individual issues of the program, super-program material, history of the development of science, design, modeling, experimental work, meetings with scientists, etc. Thanks to these forms, students can satisfy their various cognitive and creative needs. Develop creative potential, actively participate in competitions, olympiads, etc. These forms have great educational and educational significance. They are varied and require erudition and a creative approach from the teacher.
This is the organization of educational and cognitive activity of students, corresponding to different conditions for its implementation and used by the teacher in the learning process.
Forms:
1. lesson;
2. excursion;
3. extracurricular work;
4. extracurricular activities;
5. electives;
6. homework;
7. socially useful work.
Lesson
Structure: organizational moment, updating or testing knowledge, new material, consolidation, d/z, result.
Types lesson (based on didactic tasks): introductory, learning new material, developing skills, accounting and testing, generalizing, combined.
Kinds connections with the source of knowledge, dependence on the cognitive activity of students, the activities of the teacher: explanatory and illustrative, problem-based, laboratory lesson.
Excursion - a form of organizing the educational process with a class or group, which allows, for cognitive purposes, to observe and study objects and phenomena in natural conditions, at exhibitions, at the choice of the teacher or on topics related to the program.
Signs:
1. The study of the object should be carried out directly in nature, in a museum.
2. Students’ cognitive activity is aimed at studying specific objects in natural conditions.
3. The predominant role is played by observation and independent work.
4. The educational process should take place outside the classroom.
Methods, equipment.
In the classroom, the teacher gives introductory instructions, distributes tasks, and divides students into groups.
Stages:
1. choosing a topic,
2. defining goals and objectives,
3. study the route,
4. selection of objects,
5. preparing equipment,
6. study of literature,
7. compiling a summary,
8. preparation of tasks and cards,
9. selection and development of methods.
Structure:
1. introductory conversation,
2. student organization,
3. study of the intended objects,
4. collection of material,
5. fastening,
6. registration of results.
Requirements:
1. must have not only educational, but also educational significance,
2. elements of entertainment,
3. should not be like a lecture,
4. the number of copies should be limited,
5. all types of work are recorded on site,
6. the collected material is used,
7. safety precautions.
Classification:
Venue:
1. in nature,
2. in the museum,
3. in production.
By purpose: educational, industrial, local history.
By time: introductory, current, final.
Extracurricular work – a form of organization of students to perform after lessons mandatory practical work related to the study of the course on individual or group assignments of the teacher.
Extracurricular activities - a form of various organization of voluntary work of students outside the lesson under the guidance of a teacher to stimulate and demonstrate their cognitive interests and creative initiative in expanding and supplementing the school curriculum.
TYPES OF TRAINING
Types of training are distinguished by the nature of training and educational activities, by the construction of content, methods and teaching aids.
In didactics, there are 3 types of training.
1. Explanatory and illustrative. The most common one is characterized by the fact that the teacher presents the material in a ready-made form, and the student perceives and reproduces it.
Advantages: 1. systematic, 2. low time consumption.
Flaws: 1. the developmental function is poorly implemented, 2. the activities of students are reproductive.
2. Problem based learning.
3. Programmed training.
Learning is carried out as a clearly controlled process, since the material being studied is divided into small, easily digestible portions, which are sequentially presented to the student during study. After studying each fragment, an assimilation check follows, only after which they move on to the next fragment.
Target– improvement of educational process management. It arose in the early 60s.
Main principles:
1. control of every step;
2. timely assistance;
3. avoiding underachievement and discouraging interest in studying.
Trained in the USA: Press, Crowder, Skinner.
Studied in the USSR: Talyzina, Landa, Matyushkin.
Peculiarities:
1. The educational material is divided into separate portions.
2. The educational process consists of successive steps containing a portion of knowledge and mental actions to assimilate it.
3. Each step ends with control.
5. If there are mistakes, the student receives help and completes an additional task.
6. As a result, the student himself masters the material at the right pace.
7. The teacher acts as an organizer, assistant and consultant.
1. Presents 1 dose of material – Perceives information.
2. Explains 1 dose and actions with it - Performs the operation of assimilating 1 dose.
3. Asks control questions – Answers questions.
4. If the student answers correctly, present the 2nd dose, if not, explain the error, return to work with the 1st dose - Move on to the next dose or return to study 1.
Advantages: 1. small doses are well absorbed, 2. the pace is chosen by the student, 3. a high result is provided.
Flaws: 1. not every material lends itself to step-by-step processing, 2. limitation of the student's mental development by reproductive operations, 3. lack of communication and emotions.
MEANS OF EDUCATION
Means of education- material or ideal objects placed between the teacher and students and are used for students to acquire knowledge, form experience, cognitive, creative and practical activities.
Means of education– real objects (for example, a bridge). The choice depends on the purpose, content, methods of education, the ability to use the teacher, the equipment of the school.
Material and ideal means, means of teaching and learning.
Main functions means of education:
1. Information
2. Didactic
3. Test
4. Auxiliary (helps to perceive the material)
5. Maintaining cognitive interest
6. Availability of material
7. Providing more accurate information about the phenomenon being studied
8. Makes students’ independent work more interesting
9. Allows the student to progress at his own pace
Classification:
1. Natural remedies:
a) living objects,
b) inanimate natural objects,
c) herbariums, collections, skeletons, stuffed animals.
2. Visual: tables, layouts, diagrams, diagrams, maps, photographs, layouts.
3. Technical, with which you can solve didactic problems: a microscope, magnifying glass, overhead projector, computer.
4. Printed teaching aids.
5. Audiovisual: videos, slides, filmstrips.
6. Didactic materials: demonstration and handouts.
11. TRAINING METHODS
Method (from Greek "path")– “a way of moving towards the truth, towards the expected result.”
It acts as an orderly way of activity to achieve educational goals.
Reflects:
1. Methods of teaching work of the teacher and methods of educational work of students in their relationship.
2. The specifics of their work to achieve various learning goals.
Teaching methods- ways of compatibility of the activities of the teacher and students, aimed at solving learning problems.
Classification
1. Teacher’s work methods (story, explanation) and students’ work methods (exercises, independent work).
2. According to the source of knowledge.
A) Verbal methods allow you to convey a large amount of information in the shortest possible time, pose problems to students and indicate ways to solve them.
Story– oral narrative presentation of educational material.
Requirements: contain only reliable facts, include sufficiently vivid and convincing examples and facts, have a clear logic of presentation, be emotional, be presented in simple and accessible language, display elements of the teacher’s personal assessment.
Explanation – verbal interpretation of patterns, essential properties of the object or phenomenon being studied.
Requires: precise formulation of tasks, consistent disclosure of cause-and-effect relationships, argumentation and evidence, use of comparison, juxtaposition, use of vivid examples, impeccable logic of presentation.
Conversation– a dialogical teaching method in which the teacher, by asking a carefully thought-out system of questions, leads students to understand new material.
Introductory, conversation-messages, consolidating, individual, frontal.
Advantages: activates educational and cognitive activity, develops memory and speech, has great educational power, and is a good diagnostic tool.
Disadvantages: time-consuming, contains an element of risk, requires a reserve of knowledge.
Discussion based on an exchange of views on a subject.
Lecture– monologue way of presenting voluminous material.
Working with the textbook. Techniques: taking notes, drawing up a plan, thesis, quoting, reviewing, writing a certificate.
B) Visual.
Methods in which the assimilation of educational material is significantly dependent on the visual aids and technical means used in the learning process. They are used in conjunction with verbal and practical ones and are intended for visual and sensory familiarization with phenomena and processes.
Illustration method involves showing students posters, tables, maps, and flat models.
Demonstration method associated with the demonstration of instruments, experiments, technical installations, films.
Conditions:
1. the visualization used must be appropriate for the age of the students.
2. Visualization should be used in moderation.
3. observation should be organized in such a way that all students can clearly see the object being demonstrated.
4. must be highlighted when displayed.
5. think through the explanations in detail.
6. Visibility must be consistent with the content of the material.
7. involve the students themselves in finding the desired information in the visual aid.
B) Practical are based on the practical activities of students, as a result of which practical skills are formed.
Exercises– repeated performance of a mental or practical action in order to master it or improve its quality.
The nature: oral, written, graphic, educational and labor.
According to the degree of student independence: reproducing, training.
Laboratory– students, on the instructions of the teacher, conduct experiments using instruments, i.e., studying phenomena using special equipment. The teacher draws up instructions, and students record the results of their work in the form of reports and graphs.
Practical are carried out after studying large sections and are of a generalizing nature. May be held outside of school.
3. According to the nature of students’ cognitive activity: explanatory-illustrated, reproductive, problem-based, partially search, research methods. (Skatkin.)
PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING
A type of learning in which relatively independent search activities are organized, during which students acquire new knowledge, skills and develop general abilities, as well as research activity, and form creative skills.
The teacher performs the function of a leader; the degree of his participation depends on the complexity of the material, the preparedness and level of development of the students.
Structure:
1. Creating a problem situation and stating the problem.
2. Proposing hypotheses, suggesting possible ways to solve a problem, justifying them and choosing one or more.
3. Experimental testing of accepted hypotheses.
4. Generalization of results: inclusion of new knowledge and skills in the system already mastered by students, consolidation and application of them in theory and practice.
Teacher Student
1. Creates a problematic situation – Realizes contradictions in phenomena.
2. Organizes thinking about the problem – Formulates the problem.
3. Organizes a search for a hypothesis – Puts forward a hypothesis.
4. Organizes hypothesis testing – Tests the hypothesis.
5. Organizes the generalization of the result and the application of the acquired knowledge – Analyzes the result, applies the acquired knowledge.
Advantages:
1. students are involved in active intellectual and practical activities - the development of thinking abilities;
2. arouses interest;
3. awakens creative forces.
Flaws:
1. cannot always be applied due to the nature of the material being studied;
2. unpreparedness of students, teacher qualifications;
3. takes a lot of time.
TRAINING TECHNOLOGY
The development of the ideas of programmed learning was pedagogical technology, a view of the learning process according to which learning should be a maximally controlled process. For some time, educational technology was understood as the use of technology in teaching. Since the 50s, the learning process began to be considered broadly, systematically: analysis and development of all components of the training system, from goals to control of results. And the main idea was the idea of technology reproducibility. The development of teaching technology shows that it is possible to create a teaching system, a technological learning process in a subject, which the average teacher can use and obtain results of a given quality.
Education technology– a direction in didactics, an area of scientific research on identifying principles and developing optimal systems, on designing reproducible didactic processes with predetermined characteristics.
The task of educational technology is to study all the elements of the teaching system and to design the learning process, so that thanks to this, the teaching and educational work of the teacher turns from a poorly ordered set of actions into a purposeful process.
Features: diagnostically set goals (the goal of training is to change the category of goals: knowledge, understanding, application, analysis, synthesis), the orientation of all educational procedures towards the guaranteed achievement of educational goals, constant feedback, reproducibility of the entire educational cycle.
The teaching technology is focused on guaranteed achievement of goals and the idea of complete assimilation. Achieving learning goals is guaranteed by the development of educational materials for students and the nature of the educational process and teaching procedures. They are as follows: after determining the diagnostically set goals for the subject, the material is divided into fragments - educational elements to be mastered, then test work is developed in sections, then training and testing are organized - ongoing monitoring, adjustment and repeated, modified study - training. And so on until the given educational elements are fully mastered. The concept of complete assimilation gives high results, but this is how material that can be divided into units is studied; assimilation occurs mainly at the reproductive level. Feedback and objective control of knowledge are an essential feature of teaching technology (tests).
Flaws: orientation towards reproductive type training, a kind of coaching, as well as undeveloped motivation for educational activities, ignoring the individual and his inner world.
Educational technology has given impetus to practical didactics - the creation of teaching systems, a finished product - a package of documents and tools, didactic and technological, allowing an average-level teacher to give good results.
ESSENCE OF THE LEARNING PROCESS
Learning process– this is a purposeful interaction between a teacher and students, part of an integral pedagogical process, as a result of which the student develops certain knowledge, abilities, skills, experience in activity and behavior, and personal qualities. Purposeful, consistently changing interaction between teacher and student during which the tasks of education, development and upbringing are solved.
The learning process is built taking into account the age characteristics of students.
The driving force of learning is contradictions, on the basis of the resolution of which, through the skillful selection of teaching tools, the development of students is carried out. Learning always happens through communication.
The process is two-way:
1) teaching (teacher’s activities);
2) teaching (student activity).
Teaching – activities to organize teaching, as a result of which schoolchildren master the content of education, activities to monitor the progress and results of the organization of training.
Teaching– organization of conditions by the person himself: for assimilation of the material.
Components of the learning process:
– Target ( goals and objectives).
– D active ( activities of teachers and students).
– Efficient ( assessment, self-esteem).
CONTROL DURING THE TRAINING PROCESS
Managing any process presupposes the implementation of control, i.e., the determination of a system for checking the effectiveness of its functioning. It is also extremely necessary for the successful completion of the learning process. Control is aimed at obtaining information, analyzing which, the teacher makes the necessary adjustments to the implementation of the learning process. Control performs 3 learning functions. The educational and developmental significance of the test is that students not only benefit from listening to their peers’ answers, but they themselves actively participate in the survey, asking questions, answering them, repeating material, preparing for what they will be asked. Educational function: accustoming students to systematic work, discipline and development of will.
Requirements: individual nature, systematicity, regularity, variety of forms of control, comprehensiveness, objectivity, differentiated approach, unity of teachers’ requirements, control in a given class.
Types of control:
Preliminary – is aimed at identifying knowledge, skills and abilities in the section that will be studied.
Current- carried out in everyday work in order to check the assimilation of previous material and identify gaps in knowledge (answer board, work on cards, dictation).
Thematic– aims to systematize students’ knowledge (test, test, test).
Final(final test, oral work on tickets, defense of essays).
Shapes: individual, group, frontal.
Methods: oral (individual and frontal), written, practical, machine, self-control.
Combined control.
CONTENT OF EDUCATION
One of the main means of personality development and the formation of its basic culture is the content of education.
Contents of education– a pedagogically adapted system of knowledge, abilities and skills, experience of creative activity and experience of emotionally-volitional attitude, the assimilation of which is intended to ensure the formation of a comprehensively developed personality, capable of reproduction (preservation) and development of the material and spiritual culture of society.
Factors influencing the formation of the content of education:
1. Company order.
2. The degree of satisfaction with the content of education, the principles of scientific character.
3. Age and individual characteristics of students, their optimal capabilities.
4. The needs of the individual in education.
Content selection principles:
1. The principle of compliance of the content of education with the requirements of the development of society, science, and culture.
2. The principle of a single content and procedural side of learning when selecting the content of general education, it rejects its one-sided, subject-scientific orientation (it is necessary to take into account the principles and technologies of its transmission and assimilation).
3. The principle of structural unity of the content of education at different levels of its formation presupposes the consistency of such components as theoretical ideas, academic subject, educational material, pedagogical activity, and student’s personality.
4. The principle of humanitarization is associated with the creation of conditions for students’ active creative and practical mastery of universal human culture.
5. Fundamentalization principle content requires the integration of humanitarian and natural science knowledge, the establishment of continuity and interdisciplinary connections.
2) ideological, moral and aesthetic ideas;
3) elements of social, cognitive and creative experience.
Educational content carriers:
1. Curriculum.
2. Academic subject.
3. Curriculum.
4. Educational literature.
Syllabus– regulatory documents that guide the activities of the school. Available basic curriculum, t ipovaya curriculum, educational school plan.
Unit of curriculum- academic subject.
Training program- a document characterizing a specific subject. Approved by the Ministry of Education. Contains a list of topics, an explanatory note (tasks, methods, order of study), indicates practical and laboratory work, and sets basic requirements for knowledge and skills.
SUBJECT AND TASKS OF DIDACTIC RESEARCH
Didactics objectives:
1. describe and explain the learning process and the conditions for its implementation
2. develop a more advanced organization of the learning process, new teaching systems, new teaching technologies.
Learning acts as an object of study for the researcher when he carries out scientific-theoretical function pedagogy. As a result of the research, he gains knowledge about how the learning process proceeds, whether it has already been implemented or is being implemented in reality, what its patterns are and what its essence is. Theory serves as the basis for practical activity, making it possible to guide, transform and improve it. When a scientist moves from displaying learning to constructing it, he is constructive and technical function.
Methods of pedagogical research
1. Methods for studying teaching experience (observation, conversation, interview, questionnaire).
2. Inductive and deductive methods (induction, deduction).
3. Methods of working with literature (composing a bibliography, summarizing, taking notes, annotating, citing).
5. Pedagogical experiment (ascertaining, creatively transformative, testing or control experiment).
CONTENT AND FORMS OF DIDACTICS
The most important component of didactics are the principles of teaching. These are the main guidelines that reflect the laws of the pedagogical process and orient the teacher towards the effective organization of studies, the optimal use of forms, methods and means of teaching students, and the expedient selection of the content of classes.
To the number general didactic principles training includes the following:
1. direction of training - determined by a comprehensive solution to the problems of education, upbringing in the spirit of socialist consciousness and comprehensive development of the individual;
2. close connection with life - characterized by entering into the practice of socialist construction;
3. systematicity, consistency, continuity - are ensured by the well-thought-out interconnection and dependence of educational subjects, the logic of their following one after another and next to others, an increase in the level of problems in the content of disciplines as one moves from one education system to another, from one type of educational institution to another ;
4. accessibility of training - determined by the level of cognitive capabilities of students, the need to organize the learning process of students in the “zone of their immediate mental development,” when the level of learning is noticeably high, but is achievable for students;
5. visualization of learning - ensured by the inclusion in educational activities of various types of perception of information, memory, types of thinking, etc.;
6. the optimal combination of verbal, visual, practical, reproductive and problem-based teaching methods - depends on the learning conditions, the level of training of students and the pedagogical skills of the teacher;
7. a rational combination of frontal group and individual forms of training - achieved by skillfully alternating collective educational work (with the entire group of students at once) and direct influence on one of the students;
8. consciousness, activity, independence of learning - are achieved by increasing the responsibility of students for the results of their studies and their emancipation in the process of cognitive, work and play activities;
9. strength, awareness and effectiveness of knowledge and skills - are ensured by a creative attitude to the educational process on the part of both the teacher and the students.
The listed principles, their entirety, are not recommended to be considered as a certain set of laws, as a catechism. One should treat each and every one of them creatively, flexibly, and not in a stereotyped way. And this is primarily because the principles are always historically specific, they must be read in a specific social context, and must reflect the real social needs of society as fully as possible.
BASIC METHODS AND FORMS OF TRAINING
Pedagogical science, or rather part of it - Didactics, distinguishes three groups of teaching methods:
1. organization of educational and cognitive activities of students;
2. stimulation of educational and cognitive processes;
3. monitoring the effectiveness of these processes and all activities in general.
The first group includes verbal, visual and practical teaching methods. These include: lecture, conversation, story, demonstration of visual material, exercises, performing practical tasks, etc. The second group (stimulation methods) includes: business games, discussions, brainstorming and other methods that activate the cognition process, as well as encouragement, creating situations of psychological comfort or discomfort as a result of moral experiences and emotional unrest. At the same time, the first group should use active learning methods: lectures-discussions, lectures by two teachers, etc. The third group (control methods) includes oral or written testing of acquired knowledge, acquired skills and abilities.
Communication between people is carried out in the following 4 structures:
1. indirect communication (mainly through written speech);
2. communication in pairs;
3. group communication;
4. communication in shift pairs.
The application of these four communication structures in the educational process gives four forms of organizing the learning process:
1. individual,
2. steam room,
3. group,
4. collective.
These four forms of organization are at the core of all learning. That's why we call them basic or basic. They are forms of existence of the learning process. The content of training (education) becomes the property of consciousness and activity of students of any age thanks to the use of these forms. Visual and technical means can improve and complement them, but the basics remain the same.
In the practice of training over a number of centuries, not four, but only three organizational forms of training have been used: group, pair and individual. These are traditional forms. Everyone is accustomed to them, they have long been mastered by teachers, and are recognized by official pedagogy and educational authorities in all countries of the world. Only the fourth structure - communication in shift pairs for mass school practice and learning theory throughout the 20th century was fundamentally new. We called it “a collective form of organizing the learning process,” thereby contrasting it with individual and group forms.
Teaching aids in a modern school
and their didactic characteristics
Learning Tool- this is a material or ideal object that is “placed” between the teacher and the student. And it is used for the assimilation of knowledge, the formation of experience in cognitive and practical activities. The teaching medium influences the quality of students’ knowledge, their mental development and professional development. Objects that perform the function of teaching aids can be classified according to their properties, subjects of activity, influence on the quality of knowledge and on the development of various abilities of their effectiveness in the educational process. Teaching aids help to arouse and support the cognitive interests of students, improve the visibility of educational material, etc. When using teaching aids, it is necessary to know when to stop.
Groups: natural, visual, technical, printed, audiovisual (screen-sound), didactic materials.
Natural: play a leading role in teaching biology. These are: living objects (plants, animals), non-living (fresh frozen, preserved), herbariums, collections, preparations, microspecimens, skeletons, stuffed animals (birds, animals).
Fine: various types of tables (illustrative, text, instructional, combined), diagrams (text, digital, combined), educational pictures (steppe, meadow), diagrams, portraits, models and layouts.
Technical: due to them, students’ understanding of the subject of study is improved. These include: projector, graphic projector, computer.
Auditory: videos and films, slides, filmstrips, recordings of bird voices.
Printed: textbooks, notebooks, teaching aids.
Didactic: a very wide group of funds, because they may belong to other types.
Combining various teaching aids, it is necessary to find the best option and pay great attention to natural teaching aids. Before conducting a lesson, you need to think about the location and combination of all means.
TECHNOLOGY TRAINING FOR SCHOOLCHILDREN
This is a new direction that deals with the construction of optimal learning systems and the design of educational processes. Pedagogical technology is based on the idea of complete controllability of the educational process, design and reproducibility of the learning cycle.
Specific features of technological training:
1. Development of diagnostically set learning goals (the student’s actions are described: in terms: knows, can, applies).
2. Orientation of all educational procedures towards guaranteed achievement of educational goals.
3. Prompt feedback.
4. Assessment of current and final results.
5. Reproducibility of training procedures.
Teaching technology is focused on achieving goals and the idea of complete assimilation through teaching procedures. After setting goals, the material is divided into fragments - educational elements to be mastered. Next comes testing work in sections, then training, ongoing monitoring until complete mastery. But here, assimilation occurs at the reproductive level, and to move to the search level it is necessary to provide the necessary knowledge, to form skills at the reproductive level (practicing skills in simplified conditions + independent practice), followed by a transition to the productive phase (problem situation + analysis of students).
A feature of technological learning is the reproducibility of the teaching cycle by any teacher. The training cycle contains: training objectives, assessment of the level of training, training, a set of training procedures, assessment of results.
VERBAL TEACHING METHODS,
THEIR PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS
Verbal methods allow you to convey a large amount of information in the shortest possible time. The source of knowledge is the word.
Methods include: story, explanation, conversation, lecture, discussion, work with a book.
A story (plot, illustrated, informational) is an oral narrative presentation of the content of educational material.
Explanation is a verbal interpretation of patterns. A conversation is a carefully thought-out system of questions that serves to lead students to understand new material (can be individual or frontal).
Discussion is based on an exchange of views on a specific issue.
A lecture is a way of presenting voluminous material for high school students.
Working with a textbook and a book (taking notes, drawing up a plan, ceteering, reviewing).
With the help of the word, the teacher can bring into the minds of children vivid pictures of the past, present and future. The word activates the imagination, memory and feelings of students, emotions, and develops logical thinking.
VISUAL METHODS OF TRAINING.
THEIR PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS
Visual methods are used in almost all lessons. The use of visual methods should evoke and develop the activity of students’ perception and thinking. Visualization can be natural (wildlife and dissected objects) and pictorial (tables, diagrams, dummies, films). Types of visual methods include demonstrations of experiments, natural objects, and visual aids. Visualization is of primary importance in biology lessons, as it gives vivid, figurative ideas about plants and animals.
TYPES OF TRAINING.
COMPARATIVE PEDAGOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
In didactics, there are a number of teaching theories that explain the essence of the didactic process in different ways (they propose to build the pedagogical process in different ways).
Types of training differ in the nature of educational activities and training, in the construction of content.
Problem-based learning– the teacher organizes students to search for knowledge. The goal is to formulate concepts, search for patterns, understand theories (comprehend them). This work is organized with children during search, observation, analysis, and classification of various learning factors.
Students are presented with a problem (a situation in which, given the known facts, there is a contradiction that needs to be resolved), students comprehend it and put forward a hypothesis. Next, students conduct an experiment to prove it.
(+) gives the development of thinking abilities; creates interest; the result of creativity.
(–) depends on the nature of the educational material, a lot of time, requires careful preparation of students and teachers.
Programmed– training is carried out as a clearly controlled process. Educational material is broken down into small, easily digestible doses and presented sequentially to students for assimilation. Next comes the teacher checking the degree of absorption of each dose. (1. presentation, 2. assimilation, 3. verification)
Organizers: teacher, textbook, computer. A training program is required, i.e. a set of educational material and instructions for working with it.
(+) the opportunity to educate the student individually (understanding of the material);
(–) not every educational material lends itself to this. There is a lack of communication.
CONTROL AND EVALUATION OF TRAINING QUALITY
Control methods- these are methods of diagnostic activity that allow feedback in the learning process in order to obtain data on the success of training, the effectiveness of the educational process.
Methods oral control- this is a conversation, a student's story, an explanation, reading a text, technological maps, diagrams, a report on experience, etc.
Written control provides a deep and comprehensive assessment of students' knowledge and skills. Practical work can be considered an effective, but little used way to test learning outcomes. Didactic tests are a relatively new method of testing learning outcomes. Advantages – independence of testing and assessment of knowledge by the teacher.
Under the assessment of knowledge, skills and abilities, didactics understands the process of comparing the level of proficiency achieved by the student with the reference representations described in the curriculum. In domestic didactics there is a 4-point system: “5” – fully masters; “4” – has enough knowledge, “3” – does not have enough knowledge, “2” – does not have enough knowledge.
Indicators of knowledge development, mastery of concepts; mastery of facts; knowledge of scientific issues; mastery of theories; mastery of patterns and rules; mastery of methods and procedures. Indicators of skills development; construction of an algorithm of operations for performing specific actions in the skill structure; modeling the practical implementation of actions that make up this skill; performing a set of actions that make up a given skill, introspection of the results of performing actions that make up a skill in comparison with the purpose of the activity.
The indicators of the formation of the earlyness of skills coincide with the indicators of the formation of skills. But since the skill involves the automation of actions, the time of its execution is usually also estimated, for example, measuring the speed of reading, mental counting, etc.
Introduction
1. The concept of the learning process, its goals and functions
2. Principles of training
Conclusion
Bibliography
Introduction
An important pedagogical pattern is the dependence of the content of education, methods, means and forms on the goals of education and training set by society, on the goals of a particular school. The lack of a clear goal turns a coherent logical learning process into a random set of actions for teachers and students in mastering knowledge, skills and abilities, leads to a violation of the systemic and systematic nature of knowledge, which does not contribute to the formation of a scientific worldview, and also makes it difficult to manage the educational process.
Education is the systematic and systematic work of a teacher with students, based on the implementation and consolidation of changes in their knowledge, attitudes, behavior and in the personality itself under the influence of teaching, mastery of knowledge and values, as well as one’s own practical activities. Teaching is a purposeful activity, which implies the teacher's intention to stimulate learning as a subjective activity of the students themselves.
Education
- a purposeful process of organizing and stimulating active educational and cognitive activity of students to master scientific knowledge, skills and abilities, develop creativity, worldview, moral and aesthetic views and beliefs.
1. The concept of the learning process, its goals and functions
Under training understand the active, purposeful cognitive activity of a student under the guidance of a teacher, as a result of which the student acquires a system of scientific knowledge, skills and abilities, develops an interest in learning, develops cognitive and creative abilities and needs, as well as moral qualities of the individual.
There are several definitions of the concept of “learning process”.
“The learning process is the movement of a student under the guidance of a teacher along the path of mastering knowledge” (N.V. Savin).
“The learning process is a complex unity of the teacher’s activities and the activities of students, aimed at a common goal - equipping students with knowledge, abilities, skills, their development and education” (G. I. Shchukina).
“The learning process is a purposeful interaction between a teacher and students, during which the tasks of educating students are solved” (Yu. K. Babansky).
Different understanding of the learning process indicates that this is a rather complex phenomenon. If we generalize all the above concepts, then learning process can be defined as the interaction of a teacher and students, in which students, with the help and under the guidance of a teacher, realize the motives of their cognitive activity, master the system of scientific knowledge about the world around them and form a scientific worldview, comprehensively develop intelligence and the ability to learn, as well as moral qualities and value orientations in accordance with personal and public interests and needs.
The learning process is characterized by the following features:
a) purposefulness;
b) integrity;
c) two-sidedness;
c) joint activities of teacher and students;
d) management of the development and education of students;
e) organization and management of this process.
Thus, pedagogical categories "education" And "learning process"- not identical concepts. Category "education" defines a phenomenon, while a concept "learning process"(or "learning process") is the development of learning in time and space, the successive change of stages of learning.
The objectives of the learning process are:
Stimulating educational and cognitive activity of students;
Formation of cognitive needs;
Organization of cognitive activity of students to master scientific knowledge, skills and abilities;
Development of cognitive and creative abilities of students;
Formation of educational skills for subsequent self-education and creative activity;
Formation of scientific outlook and education of moral and aesthetic culture.
Contradictions and patterns of the educational process determine its functions. The holistic learning process serves a number of important functions.
Firstly, this educational function. In accordance with it, the main purpose of the learning process is to:
To equip students with a system of scientific knowledge, skills and abilities in accordance with the accepted standard of education;
To teach how to creatively use this knowledge, skills and abilities in practical activities;
Teach to independently acquire knowledge;
To broaden the general outlook for choosing a further path of education and professional self-determination.
Secondly, developmental function training. In the process of mastering the system of knowledge, skills and abilities, the following develops:
Logical thinking (abstraction, concretization, comparison, analysis, generalization, comparison, etc.);
Imaginations;
Various types of memory (auditory, visual, logical, associative, emotional, etc.);
Qualities of mind (inquisitiveness, flexibility, criticality, creativity, depth, breadth, independence);
Speech (vocabulary, imagery, clarity and accuracy of expression);
Cognitive interest and cognitive needs;
Sensory and motor spheres.
Thus, the implementation of this learning function ensures a person’s developed intellect, creates conditions for constant self-education, reasonable organization of intellectual activity, conscious professional education, and creativity.
Third, educational function training. The learning process as a process of interaction between teacher and students objectively has an educational character and creates conditions not only for mastering knowledge, skills and abilities, mental development of the individual, but also for the education and socialization of the individual. The educational function is manifested in providing:
The student’s awareness of his educational activities as socially significant;
Formation of his moral and value guidelines in the process of mastering knowledge, skills and abilities;
Education of moral qualities of the individual;
Formation of positive motives for learning;
Forming the experience of communication between students and cooperation with teachers in the educational process;
The educational impact of the teacher's personality as a role model.
Thus, by mastering knowledge about the surrounding reality and about himself, the student acquires the ability to make decisions that regulate his attitude to reality. At the same time, he learns moral, social and aesthetic values and, experiencing them, forms his attitude towards them and creates a system of values that guides his practical activities.
2. Principles of training
Learning principles(didactic principles) are the basic (general, guiding) provisions that determine the content, organizational forms and methods of the educational process in accordance with its goals and laws.
The principles of learning characterize the ways of using laws and patterns in accordance with intended goals.
The principles of teaching, by their origin, are a theoretical generalization of pedagogical practice. They are objective in nature and arise from practical experience. Therefore, principles are guidelines that govern activities in the learning process of people. They cover all aspects of the learning process.
At the same time, the principles are subjective in nature, since they are reflected in the teacher’s mind in different ways, with varying degrees of completeness and accuracy.
An incorrect understanding of the principles of learning or ignorance of them, or the inability to follow their requirements do not negate their existence, but make the learning process unscientific, ineffective, and contradictory.
Compliance with the principles of learning is the most important condition for the effectiveness of the learning process, an indicator of the pedagogical culture of the teacher.
The history of the development of school and pedagogy shows how, under the influence of changing life requirements, the principles of teaching change, that is, the principles of teaching are historical in nature. Some principles disappear, others appear. This suggests that didactics must sensitively capture changes in society’s requirements for education and respond to them in a timely manner, that is, build a system of teaching principles that would correctly point the way to achieving the learning goal.
Scientists have long paid great attention to substantiating the principles of learning. The first attempts in this direction were made by J. A. Komensky, J.-J. Russo, I. G. Pestalozzi. Y. A. Komensky formulated and substantiated such teaching principles as the principle of conformity to nature, strength, accessibility, systematicity, etc.
K. D. Ushinsky attached great importance to the principles of education. They most fully disclosed the didactic principles:
Learning should be challenging for students, neither too difficult nor too easy;
Education should in every possible way develop children’s independence, activity, and initiative;
Order and systematicity are one of the main conditions for success in learning; the school should provide sufficiently deep and thorough knowledge;
Education should be conducted in accordance with nature, in accordance with the psychological characteristics of students;
The formulations and number of principles changed in subsequent decades (Yu. K. Babansky, M. A. Danilov, B. P. Esipov, T. A. Ilyina, M. N. Skatkin, G. I. Shchukina, etc.). This is the result of the fact that the objective laws of the pedagogical process have not yet been fully discovered.
In classical didactics, the following didactic principles are considered the most generally recognized: scientific, visual, accessible, conscious and active, systematic and consistent, strength, connection between theory and practice.
The principle of scientific teaching assumes that the content of education corresponds to the level of development of modern science and technology, the experience accumulated by world civilization. This principle requires that, for assimilation, students be offered genuine knowledge firmly established by science (objective scientific facts, concepts, theories, teachings, laws, regularities, the latest discoveries in various fields of human knowledge) and at the same time teaching methods are used that are similar in nature to to the methods of the science being studied.
The scientific principle is based on a number of laws: the world is knowable, and an objectively correct picture of the development of the world is provided by knowledge tested by practice; science plays an increasingly significant role in human life; The scientific nature of teaching is ensured primarily through the content of education.
The principle of accessibility. The principle of accessibility requires that the content, volume of what is studied and methods of studying it correspond to the level of intellectual, moral, aesthetic development of students, their ability to assimilate the proposed material.
If the content of the material being studied is too complicated, students' motivation for learning decreases, their volitional efforts quickly weaken, their performance decreases sharply, and excessive fatigue appears.
At the same time, the principle of accessibility does not mean that the content of training should be simplified and extremely elementary. Research and practice show that with simplified content, interest in learning decreases, the necessary volitional efforts are not formed, and the desired development of educational performance does not occur. During the learning process, its developmental function is poorly realized.
The principle of consciousness and activity. The principle of consciousness and activity in learning requires the conscious assimilation of knowledge in the process of active cognitive and practical activity. Consciousness in learning is a positive attitude of students towards learning, their understanding of the essence of the problems being studied, and their conviction in the significance of the knowledge acquired. The conscious assimilation of knowledge by students depends on a number of conditions and factors: motives for learning, the level and nature of cognitive activity, the organization of the educational process, the methods and means of teaching used, etc. The activity of students is their intensive mental and practical activity in the learning process. Activity acts as a prerequisite, condition and result of the conscious acquisition of knowledge, skills and abilities.
This principle is based on the following laws: the value of human education consists of deeply and independently meaningful knowledge acquired through intense exertion of one’s own mental activity; Students’ own cognitive activity has a decisive influence on the strength, depth and pace of mastery of educational material and is an important factor in learning ability.
The principle of visibility. One of the first in the history of pedagogy was the principle of visibility. It has been established that the effectiveness of learning depends on the degree to which all human senses are involved in perception. The more diverse the sensory perceptions of educational material, the more firmly it is assimilated. This pattern has long found its expression in the didactic principle of visibility.
Visibility in didactics is understood more broadly than direct visual perception. It also includes perception through motor, tactile, auditory, and taste sensations.
A significant contribution to the substantiation of this principle was made by Ya. A. Komensky, I. G. Pestalozzi, K. D. Ushinsky, L. V. Zankov and others.
The ways of implementing this principle are formulated by Ya. A. Komensky in the “Golden Rule of Didactics”: “Everything that is possible should be provided for perception by the senses, namely: what is visible - for perception by sight; what is heard - by hearing; smells - by smell; subject to taste - by bite; accessible to touch - by touching. If any objects and phenomena can be immediately perceived by several senses - provide them to several senses."
I. G. Pestalozzi showed that it is necessary to combine the use of visualization with the special mental formation of concepts. K. D. Ushinsky revealed the importance of visual sensations for the development of students’ speech. L.V. Zankov revealed possible options for combining words and visualization. If the efficiency of auditory perception of information is 15%, and visual - 25%, then their simultaneous inclusion in the learning process increases the efficiency of perception to 65%.
The principle of visibility in teaching is implemented by demonstrating the objects being studied, illustrating processes and phenomena, observing ongoing phenomena and processes in classrooms and laboratories, in natural conditions, in labor and production activities.
Visual aids include:
natural objects: plants, animals, natural and industrial objects, the work of people and students themselves;
voluminous visual aids: models, mock-ups, dummies, herbariums, etc.;
visual teaching aids: paintings, photographs, filmstrips, drawings;
symbolic visual aids: maps, diagrams, tables, drawings, etc.;
audiovisual media: films, tape recordings, television programs, computer equipment;
self-made "reference signals" in the form of notes, diagrams, drawings, tables, sketches, etc.
Thanks to the use of visual aids, students develop an interest in learning, develop observation skills, attention, thinking, and knowledge acquires personal meaning.
The principle of systematicity and consistency. The principle of systematicity and consistency in teaching involves teaching and learning knowledge in a certain order, system. It requires a logical structure of both the content and the learning process.
The principle of systematicity and consistency is based on a number of laws: a person only has effective knowledge when a clear picture of the existing world is reflected in his consciousness; the development process of students slows down if there is no system and consistency in training; Only a certain way of organizing training is a universal means of forming a system of scientific knowledge.
The principle of strength. The principle of the strength of knowledge assimilation presupposes its stable consolidation in the memory of students. This principle is based on the natural principles established by science: the strength of assimilation of educational material depends on objective factors (content of the material, its structure, teaching methods, etc.) and the subjective attitude of students to this knowledge, training, and the teacher; Memory is selective in nature, so educational material that is important and interesting to students is more firmly consolidated and retained longer.
The principle of educational training. The principle of educational learning reflects the objective regularity of the learning process. There can be no learning outside of education. Even if the teacher does not set a special goal to have an educational impact on students, he educates them through the content of educational material, his attitude to the imparted knowledge, the methods used to organize the cognitive activity of students, and his personal qualities. This educational impact is significantly enhanced if the teacher sets an appropriate task and strives to effectively use all the means at his disposal for these purposes.
The principle of connection between theory and practice. The principle of connection between theory and practice suggests that the study of scientific problems is carried out in close connection with the discovery of the most important ways of using them in life. In this case, students develop a truly scientific view of life phenomena and form a scientific worldview.
This principle is based on the following laws: practice is the criterion of truth, the source of knowledge and the area of application of theoretical results; practice checks, confirms and guides the quality of teaching; The more the knowledge acquired by students interacts with life, is applied in practice, and is used to transform surrounding processes and phenomena, the higher the awareness of learning and interest in it.
The principle of matching training to the age and individual characteristics of students. The principle of appropriateness of training to age and individual characteristics (the principle of a personal approach to training) requires that the content, forms and methods of training correspond to the age stages and individual development of students. The level of cognitive capabilities and personal development determines the organization of educational activities. It is important to take into account the characteristics of thinking, memory, stability of attention, temperament, character, and interests of students.
There are two main ways to take into account individual characteristics: an individual approach (educational work is carried out according to a single program with everyone, while individualizing the forms and methods of working with each) and differentiation (dividing students into homogeneous groups according to abilities, capabilities, interests, etc. and working with them according to different programs). Until the 90s. XX century The main focus of the school's work was an individual approach. Currently, priority is given to differentiation of instruction. In the real learning process, the principles act in conjunction with each other. One cannot either overestimate or underestimate one or another principle, as this leads to a decrease in the effectiveness of training. Only in combination do they ensure the successful definition of tasks, the choice of content, methods, means, forms of teaching and allow them to effectively solve the problems of a modern school.
Conclusion
Education is the purposeful cognitive activity of a student under the guidance of a teacher, the purpose of which is the student’s acquisition of a system of scientific knowledge, skills and abilities, the formation of his interest in learning, the development of cognitive and creative abilities, as well as moral qualities of the individual.
The objectives of the learning process are: stimulation of educational and cognitive activity of students; formation of cognitive needs; organization of cognitive activity of students to master scientific knowledge, skills and abilities; development of cognitive and creative abilities of students; formation of educational skills for subsequent self-education and creative activity; formation of a scientific worldview and education of moral and aesthetic culture.
The principles of teaching are the basic provisions that determine the content, organizational forms and methods of the educational process in accordance with its goals and patterns.
The main principles of training are: the principle of scientific training, the principle of accessibility, the principle of consciousness and activity, the principle of clarity, the principle of systematicity and consistency, the principle of the strength of knowledge acquisition, the principle of educational training, the principle of connecting theory with practice and the principle of matching training to the age and individual characteristics of students.
These didactic principles are generally accepted and form the basis of the traditional educational system. Classical didactic principles help in determining learning goals, and can also serve as a guide for the teacher in specific teaching situations in the classroom.
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