The greatest joy gives a person the work of creative thinking. Max von Laue, the famous German physicist and Nobel laureate, wrote that "the understanding of how the most complex various phenomena are mathematically reduced to such simple and harmonically beautiful Maxwell's equations is one of the strongest experiences available to man." And in the autobiography of the great naturalist Charles Darwin there are these lines: “I discovered, however, unconsciously and gradually, that the pleasure delivered by the work of thought is incomparably higher than that which is delivered by any technical skill or sport.”
"My main pleasure throughout my life has been scientific work."
The abstract and, as it seems to many, little connection with the real problems of life, the game of chess also becomes a source of pleasure. The high skill of the game allows you to evaluate not only the sporting, but also the aesthetic side of chess. The beauty in chess is the beauty of thought. But where the concept of "beauty" appears, there must certainly be a feeling. Beautiful is always a sensual assessment, its reasonable justifications come later.
Thought processes serve in this case as a source of feelings. A beautiful idea is a completely justified phrase. The beauty of the logical constructions of geometry, the beauty of design in Pasteur's experiments or in modern genetics is not at all lower than the beauty of works of art - many scientists believe so. In any case, the pleasure of a beautiful thought is no less, although the feelings aroused in this case are still not the same.
But can we compare them at all? Where can I get the comparison scale? One physiologist emphatically stated: "It is superfluous to prove that the pleasure of contemplating a picture of a great painter is incomparable with the pleasure of eating a barbecue." There is a logical error in this phrase: whoever declares two objects to be incomparable has actually already made a comparison. Apparently, the scientist wanted to say that the pleasure of painting is not identical with the pleasure of food. This is quite fair.
But something in common in these two types of pleasure can still be found. P. I. Tchaikovsky did not hesitate to compare the pleasure of good music with the pleasure that a person experiences in a warm bath.
Achievements in neurophysiology of recent decades allow us to make a specific assumption: in all cases of pleasure, the so-called "pleasure centers" in the diencephalon are excited. This arousal is not isolated. In different situations, various “neural patterns of excitation” in the cerebral cortex associated with second-signal stimuli are superimposed on it. That is why pleasure has many subtle nuances. Os-ionic sensual tone, which gives all these diverse and, of course, not identical transfusions the quality of pleasure (and not suffering), begs to have the same neurophysiological nature and one physiological source.
Intellectual feelings express and reflect the attitude to the process of cognition, its success and failure. In psychology, deep connections have been revealed between mental and emotional processes that develop in unity. In the process of cognition, a person constantly puts forward hypotheses, refuting or confirming them, looking for the most correct ways to solve the problem. The search for truth can be accompanied by a feeling of doubt - an emotional experience of the coexistence of two or more competing opinions in the mind of the subject about possible ways to solve the problem. The feeling of confidence in the validity of the idea, in the truth of what a person has learned, is support for him in difficult moments of the struggle to put into practice the convictions that he came to through active cognitive activity.
The evolution of man as a thinking being, the emergence and development of consciousness, which distinguishes us from animals, was reflected in the organizations of the brain: in its ancient layers - the trunk that manages reflexes and hormones, as well as in the limbic system that controls affects and emotions. Ways of processing information, accumulated life experience, goals and motives of behavior - all this is almost entirely in the territory of the unconscious. According to modern ideas, the unconscious is a deep sphere of the psyche, a complex set of genetic predispositions, innate and acquired automatisms. Children's unconscious is the core of the planet Man. Z. Freud was one of the first to speak about the role that infant experience plays in the formation of personality. “In this sense, Freud was almost a prophet,” says G. Roth *. “Today, these ideas of his have been experimentally confirmed.” The limbic system can process and store emotional experiences already in the womb.
The cerebral cortex, which arose in the course of evolution, controls conscious thinking, our consciousness is based here. The unconscious memory of our past experiences, as the American researcher Joseph de Doux puts it, "takes hostage the rational part of the brain." Any thought, before taking shape in the mind, is processed in the limbic system. There it is emotionally colored and only then is consistent with the mind. The unconscious is a vigilant censor that can either give the go-ahead or impose a ban on our actions.
From early childhood, a person is attracted to the new and unknown - this is the basis of knowledge and development of the world around, and hence an important property of a person - intellect *, the ability to know. The brain centers of reward and pleasure are “responsible” for the learning process. If the student's brain is controlled by the "fear mode", it is under the special influence of the amygdala in the limbic system of the brain. The "activity" of the amygdala directs the mind to get rid of the source of fear. It is impossible to think creatively in this mode, the brain begins to adhere to the simplest schemes, and with the assimilated material, a feeling of annoyance crashes into the memory. “People learn better if learning is a joy to them,” concluded M. Spitzer, professor of psychiatry from Ulm.
The highest product of the brain is thinking, which is connected with the activity of the biological apparatus, its evolution, and with the social development of man. Thought is the result of the thinking process. The ability of thinking to indirectly reflect reality is expressed in the ability of a person to act of inference, logical conclusion, proof. This ability greatly expanded the possibilities of man. It allows, starting from the analysis of facts accessible to direct perception, to know what is inaccessible to perception with the help of the senses. Thanks to this ability, Galileo "rounded" the Earth, Copernicus "evicted" man from the center of the universe, Freud declared the unconscious to be the master of the "I". And Einstein brought people something like consolation: yes, we are just beings of a small planet somewhere on the side of the Universe, but despite all this, a person is great, he is able to penetrate the secrets of the universe thanks to the power of his thinking. It is he, the man, who masters and humanizes reality in all available to him, historically developed ways.
Neuroscientists and psychologists say that the brain stores information in a network structure. New knowledge is "embedded" in an already established network, or form a new "web". At the current evolutionary stage of development, the brain perceives and processes parts and the whole in parallel - in their internal interconnection. It works with information like a search engine and like a constructor. What construction he will put together depends on the individual interests, qualities and experience of each person. In the interaction of these processes, the role of feelings is that they act as a regulator of intellectual activity. Both in phylogenesis and ontogenesis, the development of feelings occurs in unity with the cognitive activity of a person, which gives rise to an emotional response, experiences in him, is associated with an assessment of the process of cognition and its results.
Some degree of emotional quality, called interest, always accompanies the urge or desire to explore and become more familiar with some object; an interest that is not connected with such an impulse is simply impossible. The process of exploration leads to insight into the nature of the object, and this, in turn, can cause fear - a quality that always accompanies the impulse to avoid danger in time or the desire to move away from the object. But with the appearance of this new impulse and its characteristic emotional quality, interest is not necessarily repressed or delayed; the urge to explore may persist along with the urge to withdraw, in which case we experience an emotional quality that resembles both interest and fear, and which can be thought of as a mixture of these two primary qualities.
Instincts and associations, in their complex form, are part of the human psyche, forming the humanized biological foundation of his consciousness, intellectual activity. The nature and structure of the human psyche are such that one's own conscious actions already at the earliest stages of human development become the subject of direct observation and awareness. In the active nature of man and his psyche, the prerequisites for the initial explanation of natural phenomena on the model of conscious human actions are laid. An important role in loosening dogmas is played by healthy doubt, thoughtfulness, criticality. But if the measure is violated, they can give rise to another extreme - skepticism, disbelief, loss of ideals, refusal to serve high goals.
Intellectual feelings are generated by man's cognitive relationship to the world. The subject of cognitive feelings is both the process of acquiring knowledge and its result. Intellectual feelings include interest, curiosity, a sense of mystery, surprise. The pinnacle of intellectual feelings is a generalized feeling of love for truth, which becomes a huge driving force that contributes to deep penetration into the secrets of being.
If emotions, especially lower ones, are not amenable to radical correction, then higher feelings (moral, intellectual, aesthetic) are brought up in a person. By moral feelings are those that arise when evaluated. UNI of people's actions, analysis of living conditions, in the implementation of moral deeds. Among them, a special place is occupied by a sense of duty. It is based on the experience of social needs and the need to fulfill them. Anna. Moral feelings also include feelings of benevolence towards people, compassion, indignation at injustice, immoral deeds.
A special place in the life of every person is occupied by the feeling of love. This inherently moral feeling ennobles those who love, unites a man and a woman, and carries sympathy, feelings, and also the duty of one to the other. This feeling is also accompanied by the joy of the existence of the object of love, tenderness and longing during separation, even temporary. This feeling inspires people to serious life tests.
Moral-political feelings is commitment to one's own. Motherland, society, patriotism, internationalism, etc.
The combination of moral education with the work of the individual himself to achieve moral goals is the only possible organization of effective moral education
The formation of the moral qualities of a person is the central problem of education and one of the important problems in the formation of a new person. In different people, depending on the conditions of life and upbringing, moral values develop differently. Moral assessment is expressed in such categories as good and evil, honor and dignity, justice.
The basis of high citizenship of a medical worker is the formation of moral feelings, especially such as humanism - love and respect for a person, care for him, sympathy
Of particular importance is the development of a sense of responsibility. A developed sense of responsibility determines the attitude of the individual to himself and others, to the team, to society as a whole. Responsibility of a person of truth presupposes his awareness of his duty to society, the ability to evaluate his actions, knowledge of his rights and obligations.
Intellectual feelings include emotional experiences associated with mental activity: a sense of the new, surprise, confidence in the truth of the decision, etc., their basis is the love of knowledge, which can take on various forms and directions.
Truth is the highest level of intellectual feeling, it makes a person work hard, overcome difficulties in the process of cognition, consciously abandon other activities in order to have more time left to search for it.
The formation of intellectual feelings is possible only in persons with a certain general educational level. Therefore, the secondary education of young people is of great importance for the development of intellectual experiences. In the process of learning at school, students master the basics of knowledge that contribute to the development of intellectual feelings. An important role in their formation is played by the creation in our country of various scientific and technical societies, the publication of scientific and popular scientific journals, and the support of scientific activities. A special role in the development of intellectual feelings belongs to the family. The constant training of children from an early age to intellectual pursuits contributes to the development of the child's abilities, the education of love for truth.
Aesthetic feelings are a person's experience associated with his perception of natural phenomena, works of art, noble deeds, etc. They have a qualitative expression: from slight excitement, satisfaction, joy or sadness to real aesthetic delight. At the same time, aesthetic feelings merge with moral ones. Aesthetic feelings are divided into several forms of their manifestation - a feeling of sublime, comic, tragic, etc.
The most important condition for the decomposition of aesthetic feelings is the awareness by young people of the need to develop the spiritual world of man, the culture of behavior and the beauty of human relationships. The level of aesthetic upbringing depends on the improvement of the system and methods of education in preschool institutions, general education schools, secondary specialized and higher educational institutions, on the systematic acquaintance of students with the world, on the behavior of parents, on communication with nature.
In general, moral, intellectual, aesthetic education largely affects the development and state of the life position of the individual, i.e. systems of its views and attitudes towards the phenomena of life, to work, their material and spiritual values of societies.
Without taking into account feelings, it is impossible to give a comprehensive assessment of the personality. K. I. Chukovsky wrote that, in addition to all sorts of properties, the human personality has its own spiritual melody, which each of us carries everywhere with us, and if we want to portray a person and depict his properties without a spiritual melody, this image will be a lie and slander. This melody, like emotions and feelings in general, we must take into account at every step. Otherwise, there will be significant harm to human health, creating stressful situations where they could be avoided with a whip.
Stress is understood as an emotional state caused by situations of extremely strong tension - a threat to life, physical and mental stress, fear, the need to make responsible decisions quickly. Under the influence of stress, a person's behavior changes, it becomes disorganized, disordered. Opposite changes in consciousness are also observed - general lethargy, passivity, inaction. The change will lead NK is a kind of protection of the body from too strong stimuli. Only determined and calm people, as a rule, can regulate and control their behavior in a stressful situation. But frequent stressful situations change the mental properties of the personality, which becomes more susceptible to the negative effects of stereotypes (Fig. 83c. 8.3).
The strength of the impact of stressful irritation is determined not only by its objective value (intensity of physical and mental tension, the reality of a threat to life, etc.), but also by the mental state of a person. So, if a person is not sure that she is able to control a stressful situation (for example, she can, at her own discretion, reduce physical or mental stress, avoid a dangerous situation), then the influence of the stress factor decreases. Significant violations of mental activity and human health are observed in cases where a person cannot change a stressful situation, feels doomed.
Stress conditions especially often cause various cardiovascular and gastrointestinal diseases. The main factor in this is
Figure 83 . In a stressful situation, a critical overload of the psyche often occurs.
distribution over time of the stressor. The occurrence and development of a disease, for example, stomach ulcers, are associated with the fact that the action of a stressor coincides with the secretion cycle of the digestive system and enhances the release of hydrochloric acid. If the latter is released a lot, it leads to irritation, and then to inflammation of the mucous membrane of the stomach and duodenum, and, as a result, gastritis, peptic ulcer, what. The model of the emergence of psychosomatic diseases can be represented as follows:
. Psychosomatic model of disease occurrence (for Beltrush, 1984)
One of the forms of stress is frustration - the emotional state of a person that arises as a result of an insurmountable obstacle on the way to satisfying a need. Frustration leads to various changes in the behavior of the individual. It can be either aggression or depression.
The occurrence of such diseases as neurasthenia, attacks of bronchial asthma, etc. often depends on the state of emotions.
The influence of emotions on a person's life is called in psychology "death. Voodoo" "Death. Voodoo" means cases where the cause of death is psychogenic factors. For example, people from Australian tribes, having learned that they were enchanted, reacted with unusual panic, which led to mortality brought to death.
Petrovskaya Tatiana Ivanovna,
defectologist teacher,
GBOU TsPMSS Vyborgsky district
“At first, in each object, the child notices only the most outstanding features, then the educator points out other qualities that are less noticeable, and the child gradually peers more attentively into the object and, little by little, independently discovers feature after feature in it. At the same time, most of all, you should try not to immediately indicate certain signs, but only to encourage the child to discover them.
E.N. Vodovozova
(Mental and moral education of children from the first
manifestations of consciousness before school age)
In a textbook on psychology, feelings are defined as a stable emotional relationship of a person to other people, communication with them, to the phenomena of reality. Feelings are generated by objective reality, but at the same time they are subjective, since the same phenomena for different people can have different meanings. Feeling is always directed towards the object.
There are the following types of higher feelings:
- moral (moral, ethical), which are formed in the process of education;
- aesthetic, they are based on the ability to perceive harmony and beauty;
- intellectual, they are manifested in the process of cognitive activity;
- practical (practical), generated by activity, its change, success or failure;
In more detail, I would like to dwell on the development of intellectual feelings in preschoolers, since my work is aimed at achieving this goal.
A person experiences intellectual feelings when he purposefully acquires knowledge about the phenomena of nature and social life. These feelings are associated with the solution of problematic, cognitive and life situations and tasks.
Human knowledge is accompanied by a special kind of experience: simple curiosity, interest in the problem that arises, doubt about the reliability of the assumption or the answer received, confidence in the accuracy of the conclusion, and, finally, joy and confidence as a result of research.
The intellectual senses are:
The feeling of the new arises in the search for the new.
The feeling of surprise arises when a child encounters something new, unknown, unusual. Surprise, caused by surprise, makes you carefully consider objects and encourages the knowledge of phenomena.
A sense of conjecture is always associated with the construction of hypotheses, the phenomena under study have not been fully revealed, but there are already assumptions.
The feeling of doubt is very important, it arises when the put forward assumptions collide with contradictory facts and this prompts verification of the information obtained.
A sense of confidence is born when the connections and relationships between things established in the process of thinking are correct.
A sense of satisfaction is caused by productive work, a correctly completed task.
Intellectual feelings - feelings caused by mental activity. We know that the development of active mental activity of preschoolers occurs through mental education.
The development of intellectual feelings of a preschooler is associated with the formation of cognitive activity, especially when solving new and difficult problems. Corrective and educational activities, didactic games, enrich the child with new knowledge, force them to strain their mental strength to solve any cognitive task, develop various intellectual feelings in a preschooler. Small discoveries of the child, when learning something new, are accompanied by joy and positive emotions, surprise at the unknown, confidence or doubt in their judgments, curiosity and inquisitiveness - all these intellectual feelings are a necessary part of mental activity. The world around them poses numerous problems for children, which the baby is trying to solve.
Full-fledged mental education occurs only in pedagogically correctly organized activities. The intellectual abilities of the child are formed in vigorous activity, and above all in the one that is leading at this age stage, determines his interests, attitude to reality, especially relationships with people around him. At preschool age, this place, of course, is occupied by the game.
The game is the best means of satisfying the interests and needs, realizing the ideas, desires, aspirations of the child.
In the process of forming intellectual and cognitive skills in children, the tasks of teaching a system of research actions necessary for an independent multilateral analysis of objects, the ability to compare, classify, generalize, group and analyze are solved.
The game is an independent type of activity: the child always starts playing on his own, continuing to play on his own, or chooses partners. I work with children with various individual typological developmental characteristics, so I am more often the chosen partner or initiator than the child himself. Here it is important not to “play too much”, the main thing is that the child tries to act on his own, does not wait for the help of an adult and is not afraid of his wrong decision. In my opinion, the task of an adult is to push the child, in the good sense of the word, to instill confidence in his actions, to let him make a mistake himself.
It is desirable that the child not only acquire specific knowledge in a particular area, but also try to get it on their own, and be able to apply it in a certain life, creative and educational situation. Do not rush the child to do the “right” as someone intended, do not give direct instructions and do not rush to teach him, let him try to achieve the truth. Copying and imitation by adults is no longer the leading motive for the child's activity.
A large role in my studies is given to the didactic game, as it is of great value in the development of the intellectual abilities of preschoolers. . Children have to solve mental problems in an entertaining way, find solutions themselves, while overcoming certain difficulties. It is necessary to make sure that the child perceives the mental task as a practical, playful one (compares the features of objects, establishes similarities and differences, generalizes, draws conclusions, conclusions). All this increases his mental activity.
I give great importance to games with natural, man-made and building materials. These games are interesting for both boys and girls, give children the opportunity to establish the properties and characteristics of something on their own experience.
1. Intellectual feelings
2. Feelings and inner sensations
3. Distinguish between emotion and feeling
Bibliographic list
experience feeling emotion feeling
1. Intellectual feelings
The theory of the senses has the advantage that it makes room for intellectual feelings. The term "intellectual feeling" does not have a strictly defined meaning. In the work "Psychology of feelings" Ribot combines under this name only surprise, amazement, curiosity, doubt. Other authors add to this list the general feeling that arises from the movement of our thought, from its success or futility. But one must go much further and include in the intellectual feelings all those elements of thinking that Jeme calls transitional and which do not represent the objective content: similarity, implication, coincidence, certainty, possibility, those thousands of relationships that we express in words: but, if, and , why, after, before, as well as thoughts expressed in words: future, past, conditional, negation, affirmation, etc.
William Jaime saw all this very well: “If only such phenomena as feelings exist at all, then as much as it is certain that relations between objects exist in rerum natura, it is just as certain and even more certain that there are feelings by which these relations are known. No conjunction or preposition, and even adverb, prefix or change in human speech, which do not express one or another shade of those relations that we really feel at the moment exist between the larger elements of our thinking.We should talk about feeling and feeling if, feeling but also feeling through."
It is very curious that these insightful remarks of James, which contain in their essence a fruitful idea for the psychology of thinking, shared the fate of a lost letter.
In the work "Association of ideas", sharply arguing with associationism, the idea of James is revived and he tried to develop it in a biological aspect. Every intellectual feeling is considered there as corresponding to the adaptive reactions or attitudes of the organism.
However, one difficult question remains: why do intellectual feelings seem to us objective, while other feelings and emotions are "our own states"?
But is it? Indeed, many intellectual feelings, such as certainty, doubt, affirmation and negation, logical conclusion, etc., depending on the circumstances, on the direction of our interests at the moment, may seem to us both objective and subjective. On the other hand, are other feelings always subjective? We know how easily they are objectified. Aesthetic experiences are objectified in the beautiful, disgust in the repulsive, and so on. We say that an event (objective) is sad, joyful, shameful, comical, or unpleasant. When we say that work is unpleasant, we place this "unpleasant" either in the work or in ourselves, depending on the context of our thoughts.
The subjectivity or objectivity of the cognized content is always the result of a secondary process that depends on the acquired experience. Initially, the states of our consciousness are neither objective nor subjective. They gradually become one or the other, as necessary to adapt to the physical or social environment.
2. Feelings and inner sensations
The functional concept discussed above allows us to clarify the difference between feelings and internal or organic sensations, in particular the sensations of hunger, thirst, fatigue, and also synesthesia. Often this distinction is not made and people talk about "feeling" tired or hungry.
In my opinion, the sensations of hunger, thirst, fatigue (perhaps, the sensation of pain can be added to them) are of no importance in themselves; they are phenomena that derive their significance only from those attitudes, tendencies and movements which they instinctively evoke, and it is precisely such instinctive reactions that make them significant for the behavior of the individual. But these instinctive reactions are nothing but the basis of feelings: feelings of pleasant or unpleasant, desire, need.
Thus, inner sensations are states distinctly different from feelings, which are attitudes. Inner sensations inform us about certain states of our body in the same way that external sensations inform us about the state of the environment. But the vital significance of organic sensations can only be determined by the existence of the senses.
Feelings express in some way the relationship between a certain object or situation and our well-being (it can also be said that they express our attitude towards the situation or object). The physiological basis of such an attitude is the attitude itself. Feeling is the awareness of such an attitude. In contrast, sensations present only objects towards which we take attitude. The object presented by internal sensations, such as sensations of hunger, thirst, fatigue, is our own body. But it is through the attitude to its own state that our body is able to adopt a certain attitude. It is clear that there is a very intimate connection between inner sensations and feelings, since both of them have their source in the body. This does not prevent us, however, from clearly distinguishing them from a functional point of view. They oppose each other in the same way that a reaction opposes the object that caused it.
McDougall William, an Anglo-American psychologist, originally engaged in biology and medicine, under the influence of the "Principles of Psychology" by W. James turned to the study of psychology, first in Cambridge, then in Göttingen under H. Muller. Lecturer at University College London and Oxford. Professor at Harvard and Duke University in the USA. He considered the aspiration - "gorme" (Greek - aspiration, impulse) as the basis of mental life, which is why W. McDougall's psychology is often called sgormic. "Gorme" is interpreted as an aspiration to a biologically significant goal, due, according to W. McDougall, to a special kind of predispositions - innate instincts or acquired inclinations. Emotional experiences are considered as subjective correlates of these predispositions. The emotional sphere in the process of its development in a person receives a hierarchical structure. First, several basic emotional formations ( sentiments), and then, with the already established character, one central one, called egoic McDougall (from "ego", Greek - "I"). Reflections on the clinical phenomenon of "multiple" personality prompted W. McDougall to develop a metapsychological concept of personality, based on the ideas of G. Leibniz's monadology. According to this, each person represents a system " potentially thinking and aspiring monads" ("I"), converging on some "higher" monad - "> a bridge", which through the hierarchy of monads controls the entire psychophysical life of a person.
3. Distinguish between emotion and feeling
The terms "emotion" and "feeling" are still used with great uncertainty and confusion, which corresponds to the uncertainty and diversity of opinions about the foundations, conditions for the occurrence and functions of the processes to which these terms refer. After many years of systematic work to make ideas on these issues clearer, psychologists felt that they were in a position to offer a scheme that seemed to them exhaustive, consistent, and basically correct, although still in great need of correction and refinement of details.
The proposed scheme is based on evolutionary and comparative data and is in agreement with the facts that are found in human experience and behavior. It proceeds from the principles of voluntaristic, or hormic, psychology, i.e., psychology, which, as the main feature of the entire life of an animal, considers its ability to actively achieve goals by means of plastic behavior - based on aspirations ( striving), expressed in such body movements that adapt to the details of emerging situations in a way that is commonly called intellectual.
The ability to strive for certain results, the ability to pursue goals, to resume and maintain actions that provide beneficial effects for the organism or species, must be recognized as a fundamental category of psychology. Whether such a capacity for the process of evolution "developed" from forms devoid of any of its germs, whether it can be explained in terms of physics and chemistry, as representatives of Gestalt psychology are trying to show, are questions for the future. Psychology should not wait for affirmative answers to these questions in order to recognize striving as a form of activity that permeates and characterizes the entire life of an animal.
It is reasonable to assume that the primary forms of the animal's aspirations were the search for food and the avoidance of what is harmful, and that from these two primitive forms of aspirations, all other varieties of their aspirations differentiated and developed.
Based on these assumptions, it can be argued, firstly, that all those experiences that we call feelings and emotions are associated with manifestations of the aspirations of the body, caused either by external influences, or metabolic processes within the body, or, most often, both ways; secondly, that in general terms we can reliably distinguish between feelings, on the one hand, and emotions, on the other, on the basis of their functional relationship to the purposive activity that they accompany and determine, since these relations in both cases differ significantly.
There are two primary and fundamental forms of feeling - pleasure and pain, or satisfaction and dissatisfaction, which color and determine to some, even if insignificant, degree, all the aspirations of the organism. Pleasure is a consequence and a sign of success, both complete and partial, suffering is a consequence and a sign of failure and frustration. It is possible that primitive pleasure and pain were alternatives that were practically (though perhaps not absolutely) mutually exclusive. But with the development of cognitive functions, the organism begins, firstly, to simultaneously grasp different aspects of objects and situations, and secondly, to experience pleasures and pains caused by anticipation or memory.
The first makes possible the simultaneous actualization of various motives (impulses), modifying each other as a result of rivalry or assistance. The second creates the possibility of connecting actual success with anticipation of failure, actual frustration with anticipation of success. Accordingly, the types of feelings become more complicated.
An organism that has reached this level of development of cognitive functions no longer has to vacillate between simple pleasure and simple pain. Besides these simple and primitive extremes, he is capable of experiencing a whole range of feelings, which are in a sense a combination or mixture of pleasure and pain; he experiences such feelings as hope, anxiety, despair, a sense of hopelessness, repentance, sadness. As mental structures become more complex, an adult learns "sweet sadness", joys marked by suffering. "an unusual interweaving of sadness and fun",. the dark moments of his failures are brightened by rays of hope, and the moments of triumph and triumph are overshadowed by the consciousness of the futility of human aspirations, the fragility and fragility of all achievements. In short, an adult who has been taught to "look back and forth and yearn for what is missing" is no longer capable of the simple feelings of a child. With the development of the powers of knowledge, his desires become complex and varied, and the simple alternation of pleasure and pain gives way to an endless movement through the range of complex feelings. Such complex feelings in everyday speech are called emotions. Adhering to the terminology proposed by Shand, we everywhere called them "emotions derived from desire."
Scientific research will become much clearer and more precise if we stop referring to such complex feelings with the general term "emotion". The difficulty of distinguishing between complex feelings and emotions proper, as well as the existing tendency to confuse them, is due to the fact that almost all aspirations in a developed psyche are colored both by emotions proper and by complex feelings, or "derivative emotions" mixed into one complex integrity.
Let us now consider the emotions themselves. As soon as the primary impulses are differentiated into impulses directed to more specific goals and caused by more specific objects or situations, each such specialized impulse receives its expression. in the form of a complex of bodily adaptations that facilitate and support the corresponding bodily activity. Without fully accepting the James-Lange theory, we must, however, assume that each such system of bodily adaptations is reflected in the experiences of the organism, thereby giving each specialized aspiration a peculiar distinctive quality - the quality of one of the primary emotions. When psychic development reaches a level at which two or more specialized impulses come into play simultaneously, counteracting or cooperating, these primary qualities merge into complex formations, which we call secondary or mixed emotions; such complex qualities are embarrassment, shame, reverence, reverence, disgrace.
Let's try to compare complex feelings, or "derivative emotions", and emotions proper, primary and mixed, given that all specific emotional experiences in a developed psyche are formations in which genuine and derivative emotions, abstractly separated by us, are mixed.
1. Complex feelings, as well as simple ones, arise depending on the success or failure of the implementation of our aspirations. They influence the further fate of the urges from which they themselves originated, strengthening them and supporting them when the balance of sensual tone is on the side of pleasure, or delaying and rejecting them when the balance of feelings is on the side of suffering.
On the other hand, genuine emotions precede success or failure and do not depend on them; they arise together with the actualization of the corresponding impulses and continue to color the experience of each of the aspirations in a special tone, giving their specific quality to all education, regardless of the magnitude of success or failure, both actual and anticipated. They do not directly affect the change in the strength of aspirations. Being a quality of subjective experience, they only testify to the nature of bodily adaptations that are organically connected with each fundamental type of aspiration. In a developed psyche, however, they indirectly influence the course of voluntary actions: by revealing to a self-conscious organism the nature of acting impulses, they create some possibility of controlling and managing them.
2. Complex feelings, in addition, depend on the development of cognitive functions and are secondary in relation to this process. It can perhaps be argued that they are inherent only in man, although their simplest forms are probably also accessible to higher animals. On the other hand, one should think that genuine emotions appear at much earlier stages of evolutionary development. For most of the evolutionary process they are simply a by-product of the impulsive strivings of the animal, and only in man do they become an important source of self-knowledge and hence self-government.
3 These complex feelings (such as hope, anxiety, repentance) do not represent separately existing phenomena and do not originate from any special attitudes of the body. Each of the names we use to describe this kind of feeling is, perhaps, just a poorly defined part of the wide range that can generally be found in the process of satisfying any strong desire, regardless of its nature and origin. As the subject, driven by desire, moves through this range of complex feelings, each of the parts designated by this or that name is experienced separately and gradually passes into the next quality.
On the other hand, any genuine primary emotional quality arises from the actualization of the corresponding goal-directed attitude, which is an integral property of the mental structure of the organism; therefore, each of these qualities is experienced only in connection with a specific urge or desire. Further, since more than one of these attitudes may come into play at the same time, giving rise to mutually cooperating or contradictory desires, so also the corresponding primary emotional qualities may simultaneously appear and mix or merge with each other in various proportions. Let us illustrate these opposite features with examples. Hope we call the complex feeling that arises in us during the action of any strong desire and in anticipation of success; in the event of new difficulties, hope gives way to anxiety or despair, but in no case can it be said that it is mixed with despair, giving rise to anxiety; rather, as the favorable circumstances decrease, the feeling rooted in our desire changes in imperceptible gradations from hope to anxiety and further to despair. The opposite case can be illustrated by the emotion we call curiosity or interest and its relation to the emotion we call fear. Some degree of emotional quality, called interest, always accompanies the urge or desire to explore and become more familiar with some object; an interest unrelated to such a drive is simply impossible. The process of inquiry leads to insight into the nature of the object, and this in turn can produce fear, a quality that always accompanies the urge to avoid the object, or the desire to move away from it. But with the appearance of this new impulse and its characteristic emotional quality, interest is not necessarily repressed or delayed; the urge to explore may persist along with the urge to withdraw, in which case we experience an emotional quality that resembles both interest and fear.
Bibliographic list
1. Arkhipkina O. S. Reconstruction of the subjective semantic space, meaning emotional states. - News. Moscow university Ser. Psychology. 2008, no. 2.
2. Buhler K. Spiritual development of the child. M., 2009.
3. Vasiliev I. A., Popluzhny V. L., Tikhomirov O. K. Emotions and thinking. M., 2010.
4. Vilyunas VK Psychology of emotional phenomena. M., 2009.
5. Woodworth R. Experimental psychology. M., 2008
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