The process of understanding speech. Reaction mechanism explanation of their origin

4.6. Pathocharacterological reactions Pathocharacterological reactions are reactive states, manifested mainly by transient behavioral disorders and leading to socio-psychological maladaptation. According to A. E. Lichko (1977), pathological personality

First reactions So the illusions collapsed, one after another. And then something unexpected appeared: black humor. After all, we realized that we had nothing to lose, except for this ridiculously naked body. Even under the shower, we began to exchange playful (or pretending to be) remarks in order to

3. Reactions Changing the setting is clearly not enough. After all, it is very easy to make empty statements full of intent and desire to grow. It is much more difficult to back them up with action through the years of adversity and disappointment that re-energize our

Substrate - a chemical substance that undergoes transformation by the action of an enzyme.

Reagent - These are substances that take part in a chemical reaction, but are not themselves the object of processing.

reaction center - an atom that breaks or forms bonds.

reaction product- the substance formed during the reaction.

Activation energy - the minimum amount of energy that must be supplied to the system (expressed in joules per mole) for a reaction to occur.

Speed ​​reaction - change in the amount of one of the reactants per unit of time in a unit of reaction space.

Reaction mechanism - it is a detailed description of all stages of a chemical process.

Reagent types: radical, acidic, basic, electrophilic, nucleophilic. Methods for breaking a covalent bond in organic compounds and the resulting particles: free radicals (homolytic break), carbocations and carbanions (heterolytic break). The electronic and spatial structure of these particles and the factors that determine their relative stability.

Reagent types:

Radical reagents (radicals)- free atoms or particles with an unpaired electron. Examples of radical reagents: hydroxyl HOˑ, hydroperoxyl HOOˑ, alkyl Rˑ radicals, halogen atoms Сˑ, Brˑ.

Electrophilic reagents (electrophiles)- particles that form a new covalent bond due to the electron pair of the reaction partner. Electrophilic particles are denoted by the symbol E + or E. They can carry a positive charge - proton H +, carbocations R 3 C +, acyl cations R-C \u003d O - or be electrically neutral, for example, sulfur trioxide SO 3.

Acidic reagents (acids)- neutral molecules fully or partially ionized in aqueous solutions (CH 3 COOH, HCl) or positively charged particles (ammonium cations NH 4 +, hydronium H 3 O +) capable of being a proton donor for the reaction partner.

Nucleophilic reagents (nucleophiles)- particles that form a new covalent bond with the reaction partner, providing for this their electron pair. Nucleophilic particles are denoted by the symbols Nu or Nu and can be negatively charged - hydride ion H - , hydroxide ion HO - , alkoxide ion RO - , carbanion R 3 C - , chloride ion Cl - or be electrically neutral. In this case, their nucleophilicity is due to p- or π-electrons (NH 3, H 2 O, CH 2 =CH 2, C 6 H 6).

The term "nucleophile" is applied to a species that reacts with any electrophilic reaction partner except for the proton H + .

Basic reagents (bases)- negatively charged particles (HO -, RO -) or neutral molecules (NH 3 , H 2 O) that can abstract a proton from an acidic reaction center. Basic reagents are denoted by the symbols B- or B.

In accordance with the nature of the bond breaking in the substrate and the nature of the reagent, radical and ionic reactions are distinguished.

IN radical, or homolytic reactions(symbol R) radical reagents are involved and a homolytic cleavage of the covalent bond in the substrate occurs. At homolytic, or free radical, breaking a covalent bond (homolysis) each of the previously bonded atoms has one electron left. As a result, radical reagents are formed as intermediate species, as shown below for the X-Y molecule (where X and Y denote covalently bonded atoms or groups of atoms).

Ionic(heterolytic) reactions are accompanied by heterolytic bond cleavage in the substrate. With such a gap (heterolysis) In a covalent bond, the electron pair that binds the atoms remains with one of the bond partners. In this case, electrophilic and nucleophilic particles are formed.

Carbocations R 3 C + and carbanions R 3 C - take part as intermediate particles in heterolytic reactions.

Free radicals. The carbon atom with an unpaired electron, which is part of the free radical particles, is in the state of sp 2 hybridization and its three valence bonds lie in the same plane. An unpaired electron occupies an unhybridized p-AO located perpendicular to the plane of σ-bonds (Fig. 6).

Rice. 6. Orbital distribution of electrons in a free radical

The high reactivity of free radicals is explained by their desire to complete the external electronic level to a stable octet. Alkyl radicals are short-lived particles. Their relative stability corresponds to the series: tertiary > secondary > primary.

This is attributed to the breaking energy of the corresponding CH bond, which is 414 kJ/mol in ethane, 396 kJ/mol for the group in propane, and 376 kJ/mol for the CH group in 2-methylpropane.

The stability of free radicals increases significantly when it is possible to delocalize an unpaired electron due to the participation of π-electrons of the neighboring double bond or benzene ring. For systems with an open chain of conjugation, the most typical example is the allyl radical, and for systems with an aromatic ring, the benzyl radical (one-electron displacements are indicated by an arrow with one tip).

8. Classification of organic reactions by result (substitution, addition, elimination, rearrangement, redox) and by mechanism - radical, ionic (electrophilic, nucleophilic), consistent.

By direction (end result) organic reactions are divided into several main types:

When substitution reactions in a molecule, one atom (or group of atoms) is replaced by another atom (or group of atoms), as a result of which new compounds are formed:

CH 3 -CH 3 + C1 2 → CH 3 -CH 2 C1 + HC1

During reactions accession one new substance is formed from two (or several) molecules:

CH 2 \u003d CH 2 + HBr → CH 2 Br–CH 3

As a result of the reaction cleavage (elimination) a new organic substance is formed containing a multiple bond:

CH 3 -CH 2 C1 + NaOH (alcohol solution) → CH 2 \u003d CH 2 + NaC1 + H 2 O

Reactions decomposition lead to the formation of two or more substances of a simpler structure from one substance:

HCOOH → CO 2 + H 2

redox reactions . The oxidation process includes the transfer of electrons from the organic substrate to the oxidizing reagent, and the reduction process involves the transfer of electrons from the reagent to the organic substrate. In organic chemistry, a different approach to the interpretation of oxidation and reduction reactions is more common. Oxidation is understood as the introduction of an oxygen atom into a substrate molecule or the removal of two hydrogen atoms, as, for example, in the following rows:

With this approach, recovery is a reverse process, i.e. removal of an oxygen atom or introduction of two hydrogen atoms:

In the redox reactions of organic compounds, the degree of oxidation of the carbon atom, which is the reaction center, certainly changes. Accounting for changes in the degree of oxidation, however, may be required only if it is necessary to arrange the coefficients in the reaction equation. At the same time, many processes that occur with a change in the oxidation state of the carbon atom, such as dehydrogenation (-CH 2 CH 2 - → -CH=CH-) or halogenation (-CH 3 - →CH 2 O) are not classified as oxidation reactions.

rearrangement reaction(molecular rearrangement) - a chemical reaction, as a result of which there is a change in the mutual arrangement of atoms in a molecule, the places of multiple bonds and their multiplicity; can be carried out with the preservation of the atomic composition of the molecule (isomerization) or with its change.

Classification of organic reactions by mechanism:

IN radical reactions the reagent has an unpaired electron and is a free radical (Cl, R, etc.). In the course of radical reactions, the bond in the substrate is broken homolytically, and a new bond is formed due to the unpaired electron of the free radical and one of the electrons of the old bond. An example of radical reactions is radical substitution (symbol S R) in alkanes:

R-H + Cl → R + HCl

R + Cl-Cl → R-Cl + Cl

IN ionic reactions heterolytic bond breaking occurs in the substrate under the action of electrophilic or nucleophilic reagents.

IN nucleophilic reactions reagent ( nucleophile) has a free pair of electrons on one of the atoms and is a neutral molecule or anion (Hal - , OH - , RO - , RS - , RCOO - , R - , CN - , H 2 O, ROH, NH 3 , RNH 2 and others .). All nucleophiles are Lewis bases. The nucleophile attacks the atom in the substrate with the lowest electron density (i.e., with a partial or full positive charge). In this case, a new bond is formed due to the electron pair of the nucleophile, and the old one undergoes a heterolytic cleavage. An example of a nucleophilic reaction is a nucleophilic substitution (symbol S N) at a saturated carbon atom:

IN electrophilic reactions the attacking reagent (electrophile) has a vacant orbital and is a neutral molecule or cation (Cl 2 , SO 3 , BF 3 , H + , Br + , R + , NO 2 + , etc.). All electrophiles are Lewis acids. The electrophile attacks the atom with the highest electron density in the substrate, and the old bond undergoes heterolytic decay, and the formation of a new bond occurs due to a pair of substrate electrons. An example of an electrophilic reaction is an electrophilic addition (symbol Ad E) to a C=C bond:

In concerted reactions, the breaking of old bonds and the formation of new bonds occur simultaneously.

Acidity and basicity of organic compounds: Bronsted's theory. Bronsted classification of acids and bases. General patterns in the change of acidic and basic properties in relation to the electronic effects of substituents.

See lecture number 4.

Basic rules for naming according to the IUPAC nomenclature for organic compounds; substitutional and radical-functional nomenclature. Parental structure, substituents, characteristic groups.

Currently generally accepted IUPAC systematic nomenclature(IUPAC - International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry).

To use the IUPAC systematic nomenclature, you need to know the content of the following nomenclature terms:

organic radical;

ancestral structure;

Characteristic group;

Deputy;

organic radical- the rest of the molecule from which one or more hydrogen atoms are removed and one or more valences remain free.

Hydrocarbon radicals of the aliphatic series have a common name - alkyls(in general formulas denoted by R), aromatic radicals - aryls(Ar). The first two representatives of alkanes - methane and ethane - form monovalent radicals methyl CH 3 - and ethyl CH 3 CH 2 -. The names of monovalent radicals are usually formed by replacing the suffix -en suffix -ill.

A carbon atom bonded to only one carbon atom (i.e. terminal) is called primary, with two - secondary, with three - tertiary with four - Quaternary.

Each subsequent homologue, due to the disequilibrium of carbon atoms, forms several radicals. When a hydrogen atom is removed from the terminal carbon atom of propane, a radical is obtained n-propyl (normal propyl), and from the secondary carbon atom - the isopropyl radical. Butane and isobutane each form two radicals. Letter n-(which is allowed to be omitted) before the name of the radical indicates that the free valency is at the end of the straight chain. Prefix second- (secondary) means that the free valency is at the secondary carbon atom, and the prefix tert- (tertiary) - in the tertiary.

ancestral structure- the chemical structure that forms the basis of the called compound. In acyclic compounds, the parent structure is considered backbone of carbon atoms, in carbocyclic and heterocyclic compounds - cycle.

characteristic group- a functional group associated with the parent structure or partly included in its composition.

Deputy- any atom or group of atoms that replaces a hydrogen atom in an organic compound.

Lokant(from lat. locus- place) a number or letter indicating the position of a substituent or multiple bond.

Two types of nomenclature are most widely used: substitutional and radical-functional.

In this difficult to understand article, the psyche is considered from the standpoint of a systematic approach. Much attention is paid to the emotional sphere. In particular, the systemic energy concept of emotions is described.

Supporting Articles:

In the most general form, the psyche can be represented as an open functional system consisting of three elements:

1. mental image formation processes: attention, sensation, perception, emotions, thinking, memory
2. causes that induce mental activity: needs, motives
3. purposeful mental activity: activity

The essence of the functioning of such a system in a simplified form is that the satisfaction of certain needs becomes a motive-goal that activates the processes of forming a mental image, and a mental image, in turn, activates activities aimed at satisfying the needs and motive-goals that caused this activity. . It should be noted that since all these elements are connected in a feedback system, where the usual cause-and-effect relationships do not operate, then, strictly speaking, it does not matter which of the elements to start considering such a system with. However, according to the established everyday and scientific tradition, in order to facilitate understanding of the functioning of such a system, it is customary to start with an analysis of the motives - needs, goals and motives, then proceed to consider the formation of a mental image and, finally, to consider activity, which, on the one hand, is a consequence of mental activity, and on the other hand, it is aimed at stopping this activity.

Applying the general scheme of the control system to the psyche, it is possible to fill it with specific psychological content:

• management goals are to satisfy the needs and motives, the study of which belongs to the subject of psychology (the traditional subject of psychoanalysis);
• means is a mental image, the study of which also belongs to the subject of psychology (the traditional subject of Gestalt psychology);
• the result is an activity aimed at achieving a goal, the study of which undoubtedly relates to the subject of psychology (the traditional subject of behaviorism and, by the way, the domestic theory of activity).

Thus, the subject of the study of psychology is the self-management of the purposeful vital activity of the organism.

To define any scientific concept means to explain it with the help of other, already known concepts, to point out its place in a number of other, already known phenomena, highlighting the specific features inherent only to this concept. Let us apply this rule to define the subject of psychology.

The psyche is inherent in living organisms and is absent in inanimate objects - physical bodies. Regarding the difference between living matter and non-living matter, many scientific works have been written that agree that living organisms are capable of purposeful life. Inanimate, inanimate objects do not have this ability. At present, no one argues with the position that an active purposeful life activity is possible only if there is a possibility of self-management of this life activity.

The key in such a definition of the subject of psychology is the concept of "management".

It is unlikely that anyone will argue that the world is infinite and unknowable to the end and that some unknowable entity is possible, if you like, God or Nature, which influences, and maybe controls the soul of a living organism, while the soul, allowing it knowledge controls the organism itself. The soul - "psyche", the psyche - controls a person as an integral object, without singling out its individual organs or constituent parts. Various sciences that study a person, defining their subject of study, distinguish various aspects of the life of the organism, and the aspect of managing the active purposeful life of the body has become the subject of study of the science, the name of which includes the word "soul" - the science of psychology. In monographs devoted to theoretical problems of control in technology, cybernetics, psychology, etc. The control mechanism has long been understood as a feedback system, which includes three main components in its structure, connected both by direct and feedback.

Note that this model in no way claims to demonstrate the complexity and versatility of the control mechanism. This model emphasizes the systemic nature of the functioning of management, which implies direct and feedback links of individual elements.

In domestic psychology, attempts have also been repeatedly made to present the structure and functioning of the psyche as a feedback system. These are the reflex ring, and the systematic approach of N.A. Bernshtein to the analysis of movements, and the acceptor of action by P.K. Anokhin and other more or less well-known attempts to explain the functioning of the psyche using systemic principles. Considering the psyche as a functional system, these authors, of course, sought to holistic understanding of the psyche when all elements of the psyche are logically connected with each other.

The idea of ​​the integrity of the psyche and the systemic interconnection of individual components of the psyche - motive, image and action, was most clearly reflected in the works of M.G. Yaroshevsky, who used a systematic approach for a categorical analysis of "... the development of psychological knowledge as an activity." He convincingly showed that the weakness and one-sidedness of popular psychological theories - psychoanalysis, Gestalt psychology and behaviorism lies precisely in the fact that these theories do not use a comprehensive, holistic, systematic approach to the study of the psyche and, ultimately, are limited in understanding the subject of psychology. Thus, psychoanalysis, Gestalt psychology and behaviorism analyze needs and motives, mental image and activity, respectively, but do not consider the psyche as a whole, in the fullness of its properties.

It should be noted that the system concept of the psyche is wider than any traditional psychological theory, including the theory of activity, and at the same time does not contradict any of them. It is in it that a holistic approach to the psyche is realized.

So, in accordance with the system concept of the psyche:

- psyche - an open system of self-government by purposeful life activity, inherent in a living organism;

- the psyche, understood as a system of self-government by the purposeful life of the organism, has its own internal logic inherent in it and can be considered both from the point of view of the functioning of individual elements of the system and their interconnection, and from the point of view of the functioning of the system as a whole.

In the light of the systems approach, the psyche is a multi-level, self-organizing, dynamic and open system, which is distinguished by a number of specific properties and characteristics.

1. The active and selective nature of the reflection of the phenomena of reality, their relationships and interconnections, allowing the subject not only to navigate in the world around him, but also to cognize it. This system property manifests itself in two fundamental characteristics:

a) sensitivity - the general ability to feel;
b) non-characteristic for physical objects intentionality, that is, a focus on the external other, which at the highest levels of development of the psyche becomes arbitrary.

2. The "leading" nature of mental reflection, which also manifests itself in two main abilities:

a) anticipation or the ability to foresee, not only ascertaining, but also leading / predictive nature of information processes;
b) the ability to build a time perspective, planning and organizing activities in time.

3. The ability to convert the energy of external influences into integral information about the world (picture of the world), which at the highest levels of development of the psyche can be realized, analyzed and comprehended.

4. Active and purposeful nature of adaptation (adaptation) to the surrounding world.

5. The conditionality of the processes of development and self-organization by the factors of the socio-cultural environment. This systemic property is expressed in the mediation of higher mental functions by the experience of social interaction and sign systems.

6. At the highest levels of development, there is a tendency to such complex forms of organization and self-regulation as consciousness, self-consciousness, personality, suggesting:

a) active reflection not only of the external world (reflex activity), but also of one's own internal states and processes (reflection);
b) self-determination i.e. active goal-setting and self-determination.

7. Axiological (value) and sense-forming nature of higher forms of organization of the psyche:

a) regulation of mental activity through meanings, meanings and value orientations;
b) the ability to realize the basic values ​​of culture and to create creative meaning.

Psychic Phenomena

The psyche is manifested in mental phenomena.

All mental phenomena are divided into three groups:

1. mental processes
2. mental states
3. mental properties of the personality.

mental processes is a dynamic reflection of reality in various forms of mental phenomena. They are divided into cognitive (these include sensations and perceptions, ideas and memory, thinking and imagination), emotional (active and passive experiences), volitional (decision, execution, volitional effort, etc.).

Mental condition- a relatively stable level of mental activity that has been determined at a given time, which manifests itself in increased or decreased activity of the individual.

Every person experiences different mental states on a daily basis. With one, mental or physical work is easy and productive, while with the other, it is difficult and inefficient.

Most studied:

• general mental state, such as attention, manifested at the level of active concentration or absent-mindedness;
• emotional states or moods (cheerful, enthusiastic, sad, sad, angry, irritable mood, state of depression, inspiration, creative state, etc.).

Personality properties are the highest and stable regulators of mental activity.

Under mental properties one should understand sustainable formations that provide a certain qualitative-quantitative level of activity and behavior that is typical for a particular person. They are synthesized and create complex structural formations of the personality, which include:

1) life position (a system of needs, interests, beliefs, ideals, which determines the selectivity and level of human activity);
2) temperament (a system of natural personality traits (mobility, balance of behavior and tone of activity), which characterizes the dynamic side of behavior);
3) abilities (a system of intellectual-volitional and emotional properties that determines the creative possibilities of the individual);
4) character as a system of relations and ways of behaving.

The mental properties of a person include:

1. temperament;
2. orientation;
3. capabilities;
4. character.

Mental processes, states and properties of a person are the only manifestations of his psyche. Therefore, one and the same manifestation of the psyche can be considered in different respects. For example, affect as a mental property is a general characteristic of the emotional, cognitive and behavioral aspects of the subject's psyche in a certain, relatively limited period of time; as a mental process, it is characterized by stages in the development of emotions; it can also be considered as a manifestation of the mental properties of the individual - temper, intemperance, anger.

V.A. Ganzen, considers the categories of process and state to be opposite, distinguishing them on the basis of dynamism. The current mental state, according to the author, is characterized by a set of values ​​of the parameters of simultaneously occurring processes and is a background for them.

Between the two categories there are complex dialectical relationships: mental processes under certain conditions can be considered as states. However, processes predominantly perform the function of reflection, and states - the function of regulation.

According to A. O. Prokhorov, the autonomy of the categories of processes and states lies in the temporal aspect, as well as in the conditioning of processes by mental states that set the range of their changes, the features of deployment and the method of organization.

Consider some characteristics of the mental state:

mental processes: 1 - sensations, 2 - clarity of perceptions, 3 - features of representations, 4 - memory, 5 - thinking, 6 - imagination, 7 - speech, 8 - emotional processes, 9 - volitional processes, 10 - attention;

physiological reactions: 11 - temperature sensations, 12 - state of muscle tone, 13 - coordination of movements, 14 - motor activity, 15 - cardiovascular system, 16 - manifestations from the respiratory organs, 17 - state of sweating, 18 - sensations from the gastrointestinal tract, 19 - the state of the oral mucosa, 20 - the color of the skin;

experience scale: 21 - sadness - cheerfulness, 22 - sadness - optimism, 23 - sadness - perkyness, 24 - passivity - activity, 25 - drowsiness - cheerfulness, 26 - lethargy - liveliness, 27 - intentionality of experiences, 28 - tension - emancipation, 29 - heaviness - lightness, 30 - stiffness - looseness;

behavior: 31 - passivity - activity; 32 - inconsistency - consistency; uncertainty - confidence, 40 - closeness - openness.

Mental processes are directly related to mental states and properties. This relationship can be illustrated in the following table.

Table. Forms of manifestation of the human psyche

There are also integral mental properties and formations, such as, for example, adherence to principles or selflessness of the individual, etc. It is customary to single out the socio-psychological properties of the individual (social intelligence, social competence, leadership style, etc. Objective personal characteristics: alienation - responsiveness; consciousness - irresponsibility ; gullibility - suspicion; diplomacy - straightforwardness; radicalism - conservatism, etc.

In modern psychology, there is a division of mental processes into three main subsystems:

1. cognitive
2. regulatory
3. communicative.

The cognitive subsystem includes processes that provide knowledge of the external environment, orientation in it (cognitive processes: sensation, perception, representation, attention, imagination, memory, thinking); the second - processes aimed at building, organizing and regulating activities and behavior (volitional, emotional, motivational processes); the third is the processes that ensure communication, interaction between people.

If we classify mental processes according to the degree of their integration, then we can distinguish three levels:

1. cognitive, emotional, volitional and motivational processes
2. regulatory (integral) processes
3. reflective processes

Reflexivity acts as a meta-ability that is part of the cognitive substructure of the psyche, performing a regulatory function for the entire system, and reflexive processes as “third-order processes” (considering cognitive, emotional, volitional, motivational processes of the first order, and synthetic and regulatory processes of the second order). which include goal setting, planning, forecasting, decision making, self-control, etc.). Reflection is the highest degree of integration process; it is at the same time a way and a mechanism for the exit of the psyche system beyond its own limits, which determines the plasticity and adaptability of the personality.

In this approach, reflection is a synthetic mental reality, which is both a process, a property and a state. Reflection is both a property that is uniquely inherent only to a person, and a state of awareness of something, and the process of representing one's own content to the psyche.

As a specific ability for a person, reflection is a fundamentally inherent ability to perceive not only the external, but also the internal world. This is the ability to self-reflection of one's psyche, which is the basis of the property and phenomenon of consciousness. In addition, it is, as it were, the process of “thinking about thinking”, when the subject itself, the object of thinking, becomes itself. As a state of reflection, it is characterized by a person's immersion in his thoughts and feelings, his detachment from surrounding events and phenomena.

Functional system

The theory of functional systems, proposed by P.K. Anokhin, changes the traditional "organ" thinking and opens up a picture of the integral integrative functions of the body, postulates a functional approach to physiological phenomena.

Having arisen on the basis of the theory of conditioned reflexes by I.P. Pavlov, the theory of functional systems was its creative development. At the same time, in the process of developing the theory of functional systems itself, it went beyond the framework of the classical reflex theory and took shape as an independent principle of organizing physiological functions. Functional systems have a cyclic dynamic organization different from the reflex arc, all the activities of the constituent components of which are aimed at providing various adaptive results that are useful for the body and for its interaction with the environment and their own kind.

A functional system is such a combination (coordinated activity) of the nervous processes and organs of the human body, which allows him to both effectively perform certain intended actions and correct their results (if they are incorrect), thereby adapting to the environment.

The most detailed mechanism for managing actions and activities is considered in the scheme of P. K. Anokhin, which is fully applicable to arbitrary control.

Any functional system, according to the ideas of P.K. Anokhin, has a fundamentally the same type of organization and includes the following general, moreover, peripheral and central nodal mechanisms that are universal for different functional systems:

Rice. Organization of a functional system according to P.K. Anokhin

The functional system includes the following elements: 1) the control device - the nerve center; 2) output channels through which communication with the working organs (effectors) is carried out - nervous and hormonal regulation; 3) executive bodies - effectors that ensure the maintenance of the regulated process of the indicator at a certain optimal level in the course of physiological activity (a useful result of the activity of a functional system); 4) receptor systems that perceive information about the parameters of the deviation of the regulated process of the indicator from the optimal level; 5) a feedback channel (input channels) with the transfer of information from receptors to the nerve center.

The scheme for managing human actions, according to P.K. Anokhin, includes five blocks:

A - block of afferent synthesis;
B - decision block;
B - block of drawing up a program of action or activity in general;
G - block of execution and obtaining the result;
D - feedback block that provides information about the results of the action.

Rice. Scheme of a functional system according to P.K. Anokhin.
OA - situational afferentation, PA - starting afferentation

Let's consider how these blocks function and what their contribution to arbitrary control of actions is.

Afferent synthesis(from lat. afferens (afferentis) - bringing) - in the theory of a functional system (P. K. Anokhin), the synthesis of material imprinted in memory, motivation, information about the environment and a triggering stimulus for the purpose of making a decision. Memory is interpreted as a set of interrelated functional systems of different levels of hierarchy, formed in the process of evolution and in individual life experience, and motivation as a specification of one of the needs of the body. With afferent synthesis, due to motivation, all systems are updated, the activity of which has ever led to the satisfaction of this need. Information about the environment helps to achieve the results required in a given environment. The final decision is made at the moment when some event - a triggering stimulus - gives an advantage to one of the systems already chosen under the influence of motivation and the situation. Due to the fact that the hierarchical organization of systems in memory reflects the evolutionary and individual history of the organism's adaptive relationships with the environment, there is also a corresponding hierarchy of afferent synthesis. Like any systemic process, afferent synthesis does not take place in any separate brain structure, but is a process of interaction between neurons of the most diverse (central and peripheral, afferent and efferent) morphological affiliation in the volume of the entire brain and organism.

Afferent synthesis, according to the theory of P. K. Anokhin, is carried out with the interaction of four factors: 1) starting afferentation; 2) situational afferentation; 3) memory and 4) motivation.

Afferentation(from Latin afferentis - “bringer”) - a constant stream of nerve impulses entering the central nervous system from the sense organs that perceive information both from external stimuli (exteroception) and from internal organs (interoreception). It is directly dependent on the strength of stimuli and the saturation of the environment with them, as well as on the state - activity or passivity - of the individual.

situational afferentation- the sum of afferent excitations that occur in specific conditions and signal the situation in which the body is located. Situational afferentation acts on an organism in which there is one or another level of motivational excitation (motivation).

Under starting afferentation impetus is understood, i.e. a stimulus that, by revealing the structure of excitation in the central nervous system, leads to the appearance of any activity of the body outside. The success of the response action is a synthetic whole of situational and triggering afferentation, and that the proportion of one and the other may vary depending on the prevailing conditions of the organism's life. Experiments have shown that this constant organic synthesis of two types of afferentation is carried out with some participation of the frontal regions of the cerebral cortex. By turning on the reverse afferentation, the effect of the environment in which the given animal or person is located increases even more.

Reverse afferentation is an analog of feedback in cybernetics and is of great importance for physiology and medicine. In any physiological process or in a behavioral act that is aimed at obtaining some kind of adaptive effect, the reverse afferentation informs about the results of the action performed, enabling the organism as a whole to assess the degree of success of the action performed.

The reverse afferentations arising from any motor act are divided into two completely different categories: a) guiding movement and b) resultant afferentation. While the first afferentation is represented only by proprioceptive impulses from the muscles that carry out the movement, the second afferentation is always complex and covers all afferent signs relating to the very result of the movement undertaken. Both afferentations always have an organizing influence on the formation of subsequent actions of the organism. In fact, subsequent motor acts of the organism will be in direct proportion to the extent to which the reverse afferentation about the results of the action corresponds to the initial stimulus.

The trigger signal is perceived with the help of the sense organs in the form of sensations that send signals corresponding to the stimulus along the conductors going to the nerve centers - the afferent (sensory) nerves. In the central nervous system, these signals are processed, as a result of which sensations are synthesized and the perception of objects and situations arises. "Identification" of the starting information occurs with the help of long-term and short-term memory, i.e. traces of previous human activity in similar situations.

The processing of triggering information in the central nervous system has, first of all, the task of determining the significance of a given signal for a person. This is especially important in cases where several signals are received at the same time and a person must choose which one should be reacted to now, which one later, which one should not be reacted at all. However, before making a final decision, a person must compare the starting afferentation with the situational (background) afferentation, which informs about the state of the person himself, about the external situation. If the situation interferes with obtaining a normal, standard response to a given stimulus, the program of action to achieve the goal is amended.

Recognition of the starting signal (which can also be a need) leads to the emergence of a “model of the required future”, in the words of N.A. Bernstein, i.e. models of what should happen in response to this stimulus.

Motivational excitation that arises on the basis of a need includes in its architectonics the properties of those stimuli that lead to the satisfaction of this need: by acting on cortical cells, it creates a special chemical “tuning”. This attunement of the cells determines their reaction, due to which the active filtering of sensory information is carried out. Thus, need excitation determines the active use and selection of special stimuli from the outside world, signaling objects that can satisfy the initial need of the organism. This anticipatory reflection of the result of activity is formed on the basis of afferent synthesis.

Human activity is diverse both in meaning and actions, and in the conditions in which it takes place. Different goals, tasks and conditions of activity impose different requirements on a person and his functional systems. Therefore, the functional systems, each time the program and conditions of activity change, are partially or completely reorganized, i.e. may consist of a different number of blocks that perform their specific functions (each functional system involves different mental processes, motor and volitional qualities, etc.). This means that the architectonics (structure) of functional systems that are formed to obtain useful results (problem solving) are different. Despite this, all functional systems, regardless of the level of their organization and the number of their components, have a fundamentally the same functional architecture and principles of operation, which are understood as the laws of ordering the activities of subsystems in order to obtain a useful result.

Obviously, it is advisable to supplement these ideas of P. K. Anokhin with the ideas of A. A. Ukhtomsky about the dominant. According to these ideas, the dominant as a temporarily dominant focus of excitation (and needful excitation can be called such) lowers the thresholds for adequate stimuli (corresponding to the dominant) and raises the thresholds for those stimuli that are not related to it. Consequently, the dominant contributes to the selective perception of stimuli, stimuli, signaling the subject of satisfaction of the need.

The dominant motivation is formed on the basis of the leading need, with the participation of the motivational centers of the hypothalamus. At the stage of afferent synthesis, the dominant motivation activates memory.

Embedding in the process of arbitrary control, the above-described involuntary, independent of the will of the person mechanisms for obtaining and processing information help to make an informed decision, as if highlighting, like the beams of a searchlight, those objects and their properties that are necessary to satisfy the need.

Thus, "afferent synthesis" leads to a person receiving "information for reflection", i.e. information necessary for making an informed decision: what should be the goal, what are the external and internal conditions for achieving it.

Decision making is related to the person's certainty or uncertainty. This characteristic is expressed in the conviction or, conversely, in the doubt of a person in the correctness of the decision made. Confidence encourages a person to act on the implementation of the program, doubt makes a comprehensive check of the decision made. As a result, the execution of the action is delayed.

The degree of confidence is determined by a number of external and internal factors. Information is among the first: the less information a person has and the more seemingly equivalent options, the more (ceteris paribus) he feels insecure. Contribute to uncertainty such factors as an unexpected situation, a new environment, lack of experience. Internal (psychological) factors that cause uncertainty are anxiety, indecision as personal characteristics.

For some people (impulsive, passionate, with high self-esteem), confidence develops into self-confidence, which leads to forecasting without a sufficiently careful consideration of all circumstances and one's own capabilities. Such personalities, according to S.L. Rubinstein, as if deliberately surrender themselves to the power of circumstances, being sure that the right moment will bring them the right decision. Therefore, it is believed that a certain degree of doubt and fear is even valuable, since this guarantees a certain margin of safety.

But, as N. A. Bernshtein wrote, afferent signals often contain only information about “what is”, but not about “what should be done”. In this regard, the next stage of management is necessary: ​​determining how, with what available resources and means, it is possible to achieve the goal, the “required future”. It has to do with action programming.

Action programming. The programming of motor actions should, firstly, provide for the parameters of movements (spatial, speed, tempo, the amount of the necessary effort) and, secondly, the course of movements in detail. The first function correlates with the driving mechanism, the second - providing the "kinetic melody" - with the programming mechanism (L. V. Chkhaidze). Both decision-making and programming are related to the ability of a person to “look ahead”, i.e. extrapolate the future.

A particular type of extrapolation is anticipation, or a proactive response to some signals, moving objects.

Prediction in many cases cannot be absolute, but is probabilistic in nature: even with unconditional and conditioned reflex response, the statistical apparatus of the brain calculates the most probable variant of action that allows achieving the goal, or the variant of the response to the signal.

The ability to compare incoming information about the current situation with information stored in memory about past experience and build hypotheses about upcoming events based on all this data, attributing one or another probability to them, is called probabilistic forecasting.

Distinguish between objective and subjective probability. The first characterizes, for example, the frequency of occurrence of a particular situation. The second is the expected frequency of the event. The subjective probability may not correspond to the objective one. In the absence of information, when, for example, a person begins to perform an unfamiliar task, he proceeds from the conscious or unconscious assumption that events are equally likely; in reality, for example, one event may occur more often than others. This leads to the fact that at first a person makes many mistakes when predicting. Gaining experience, he begins to bring the subjective probabilistic assessment of events closer to the objectively existing probability, as a result of which his behavior becomes adequate to the situation.

The memory involved in programming must store information not only about past events, but also about the probability of their occurrence, and about the connections between the occurrence of different events. A certain role in probabilistic forecasting is played by emotions, which can make up for the lack of information and, coloring the situation in one or another emotional background (pleasant or unpleasant), increase or decrease the subjective probability of a response.

The programming of actions and activities is carried out in three possible variants: in the presence of complete information, in the presence of partial information and in the complete absence of information. These options correspond to a probability from one to zero. With a probability equal to one, a strict program of activities is envisaged; there is no search as such. For example, a sprinter knows to start running when the starter fires. With the absolute absence of information, probabilistic programming is useless, therefore, with complete uncertainty, the search is carried out by the “trial and error” method, i.e. comes down to a random (blind) obtaining of a useful result (this corresponds to an external search for an object to satisfy a need. Scientists treat the last option of achieving the goal differently. Some consider it a universal biological method of adaptation, others consider it a special case and see its conditionality only in the absence of information. Obviously, the assessment of this method should be approached differentially, as W. Ashby did: if you see it as just an attempt to achieve a goal, then this is really a "second-rate" method; if you consider it as an option for obtaining the information necessary to achieve the goal, then this the way can play a big role in gaining experience.

With an intermediate option (when a person has incomplete information), which occurs most often, forecasting is difficult and is carried out in various ways:

1. A person prefers to act according to a "hard" program.
2. He chooses several options and then acts according to one, then according to another option.
3. He does not have a premeditated decision and acts depending on the situation, which requires a high development of tactical thinking.

At the end of programming, a signal for the implementation of the program and the execution of the program itself (action or activity) follow. This stage in the figure corresponds to block D.

However, the management process does not end there. A person must know how the program is implemented in stages and as a whole, and in case of deviation from it, make corrections that return the system to the programmed course. Control over actions is carried out with the help of feedback and an acceptor of the result of an action (comparison apparatus).

So, the achievement of an adaptive result is carried out with the help of specific mechanisms, of which the most important are:

1. afferent synthesis of all information entering the nervous system;

2. making a decision with the simultaneous formation of an apparatus for predicting the result in the form of an afferent model of an acceptor of the results of an action;

3. actual action;

4. comparison based on the feedback of the afferent model of the acceptor of the results of the action and the parameters of the performed action;

5. Correction of behavior in case of mismatch between real and ideal (modeled by the nervous system) parameters of action.

According to P.K. Anokhin, the functional system is a cybernetic scheme for controlling the body, aimed at achieving beneficial results for the body. The functional system characterizes the following properties of the behavior control scheme:

• purposefulness associated with the need to meet the needs of the animal;
• motivation that sets the prerequisites (for example, due to needs) for the formation of a goal;
• a dominant that ensures the mobilization of the animal's resources to achieve the priority goal, including the mobilization of intellectual resources (concentration of attention);
• situation recognition;
• "planning" of actions;
• decision-making;
• prediction of the result of an action;
• performing the most purposeful action;
• assessment of the result of the action;
• comparison of forecast and result;
• finding the right solution and adjusting the knowledge base (in case of a mismatch between the forecast and the result) - training.

Rice. Cybernetic scheme of a functional system (in the spirit of P.K. Anokhin)

Recognition, planning, decision making are based on the use of a knowledge base, which is replenished during training.

An important concept of a functional system is motivation. The role of motivation is the formation of a goal and the support of purposeful forms of behavior. Motivation can be seen as an active driving force that stimulates finding a solution that is adequate to the needs of the animal in the situation under consideration. Motivation is closely related to the concept of dominant, which was introduced by A.A. Ukhtomsky. The dominant mobilizes human resources to achieve a given goal. In particular, nerve resources are mobilized so that the animal's attention is focused on the priority goal.

The composition of a functional system is not determined by the spatial proximity of the structures or their anatomical affiliation. It can include both close and distant systems of the body. It can involve individual parts of any anatomically integral systems and even parts of individual whole organs. At the same time, a separate nerve cell, muscle, part of an organ, the entire organ as a whole can participate by their activity in achieving a useful adaptive result, only being included in the corresponding functional system. The factor determining the selectivity of these compounds is the biological and physiological architecture of the functional system itself, and the criterion for the effectiveness of these associations is the final adaptive result. The functional system is characterized by:

1. degree of plasticity, i.e. the ability to change their constituent components. For example, the functional system responsible for respiration consists mainly of innate structures and, therefore, has little plasticity: as a rule, the same central and peripheral components are involved in the act of respiration. At the same time, the functional system that ensures the movement of the body is plastic and can quite easily rebuild component relationships (you can reach something, run, jump, crawl);

2. individual and changing requirements for afferentation. It is the quantity and quality of afferent impulses that characterizes the degree of complexity, arbitrariness or automation of a functional system;

3. the ability to self-regulation, which is inherent in it as a whole. With a possible defect in a functional system, a rapid restructuring of its constituent components occurs so that the required result, even if less efficiently (both in time and energy costs), would still be achieved.

The initial stage of a behavioral act of any degree of complexity, and, consequently, the beginning of the functioning of a functional system, is afferent synthesis. The importance of afferent synthesis lies in the fact that this stage determines all subsequent behavior of the organism. The task of this stage is to collect the necessary information about various parameters of the external environment. Thanks to afferent synthesis, the body selects the main ones from a variety of external and internal stimuli and creates the goal of behavior. Since the choice of such information is influenced by both the goal of behavior and previous experience of life, afferent synthesis is always individual. At this stage, three components interact: motivational excitation, situational afferentation (i.e., information about the external environment) and traces of past experience retrieved from memory. As a result of the processing and synthesis of these components, a decision is made about “what to do” and a transition occurs to the formation of an action program that ensures the choice and subsequent implementation of one action from a variety of potentially possible ones. The command, represented by a complex of efferent excitations, is sent to the peripheral executive organs and is embodied in the corresponding action.

A necessary part of the functional system is the acceptor of the results of an action - the central apparatus for evaluating the results and parameters of an action that has not yet taken place. Thus, even before the implementation of any behavioral act, a living organism already has an idea about it, a kind of model or image of the expected result.

In the course of a real action, efferent signals go from the acceptor to the nervous and motor structures, which ensure the achievement of the necessary goal. The success or failure of a behavioral act is signaled by afferent impulses entering the brain from all receptors that register the successive stages of a specific action (reverse afferentation). Evaluation of a behavioral act, both in general and in detail, is impossible without such accurate information about the results of each of the actions. This mechanism is absolutely necessary for the successful implementation of each behavioral act. Moreover, any organism would immediately die if such a mechanism did not exist.

The structure of the thinking process. Thinking is a process of cognitive activity in which the subject operates with various types of generalizations, including images, concepts and categories.

The appearance of speech in the process of evolution fundamentally changed the functions of the brain. The world of inner experiences and intentions has acquired a qualitatively new apparatus for encoding information with the help of abstract symbols. This not only made it possible to transfer information from person to person, but also made the process of thinking qualitatively different. We better realize, understand a thought when we put it into a linguistic form. Outside of language, we experience vague impulses that can only be expressed in gestures and facial expressions. The Word acts not only as a means of expressing thought: it restructures the thinking and intellectual functions of a person, since thought itself is accomplished and formed with the help of the word.

The essence of thinking is in performing some cognitive operations with images in the internal picture of the world. These operations allow building and completing the changing model of the world. Thanks to the word, the picture of the world becomes more perfect, differentiated, on the one hand, and more generalized, on the other. Joining the direct image of the object, the word highlights its essential elementary or complex features that are directly inaccessible to the subject. The word translates the subjective meaning of the image into a system of meanings, which makes it more understandable both to the subject himself and to his partner.

From the standpoint of the theory of functional systems, P.K. Anokhin, the main stages of the thought process can be compared with the stages of the structure of a behavioral act. The direction of the thinking process is determined by the dominant motivation of the subject. Afferent synthesis selects the zone of search for a solution to the problem. The incoming information is analyzed and compared with the knowledge retrieved from memory, the content of which is essentially determined by the dominant motivation. The decision-making stage corresponds to the choice of the most probable hypothesis for its subsequent verification and evidence. In the acceptor of the results of the action, in accordance with the accepted hypothesis, certain ideas are formed about what first of all should be confirmed, proved or refuted. The efferent synthesis contains the intentions of proofs and tests. The execution of a specific proof, which confirms the validity of the proposed assumption, is equivalent to the stage of real action. In case of failure, the subject's orienting-research activity is activated. It leads to a change in the content of the acceptor of results, as well as efferent synthesis. New ideas, ideas arise and, possibly, other methods of proof are involved.

In humans, there are two main types of thinking; visual-figurative and verbal-logical. The latter functions on the basis of linguistic means and represents the latest period of the phylogenetic and ontogenetic development of thinking.

Emotions. The functional system according to P.K. Anokhin does not take into account emotional processes. However, cognitive and evaluative operations affect emotions and are realized in a brain that is already emotional and is not affectively neutral. There is no such thing as a purely cognitive determinant of emotion. Emotion to a significant stimulus is the unity of affective-cognitive processes.

Rice. Scheme of the formation of an act

Emotions are the internal regulator of activity. However, emotions do not perform the function of regulating behavior directly, but through motives, and often the motives of one's own behavior remain unconscious to a person. This feature of emotional phenomena - their close connection with the sphere of the unconscious - also constitutes the most important specificity of emotions, which significantly distinguishes it from cognitive processes, which are to a greater extent carried out under the control of consciousness.

In the theoretical understanding of emotions, as is known, there are two extreme positions. On the one hand, these are biologization ideas about emotions as an adaptive (and only) mechanism for adapting the psyche to the environment, on the other hand, these are intellectualistic ideas about emotions as a result of a lack of information. Among the former is, for example, the concept of P.K. Anokhin, who did not see the difference between the emotions of animals and humans, either in terms of quality, or in terms of the functions they perform. An example of the second point of view is the information theory of P.V. Simonov, which reduces all the variety of emotions to a lack of information. Both concepts cannot claim to be a holistic description of emotions as mental phenomena, although they reflect certain aspects of the emotional sphere. First of all, these concepts do not take into account the complex heterogeneous composition of emotional phenomena that make up the "emotional sphere" of a person. The “emotional sphere” of a person apparently includes various types of emotional phenomena, such as the “emotional tone of sensations”, an emotional reaction (or emotional process), emotional states, emotional-personal qualities. Each of these types of emotional phenomena is characterized by its own patterns of formation, functioning and decay, which cannot be ignored when constructing a general psychological concept of emotions. The general psychological concept of emotions should also take into account the central factor for the human psyche - the factor of social experience, the cultural and historical determination of all human mental phenomena, including emotions. Social determination primarily determines the subject (object) to which the emotional phenomenon is directed, i.e. emotional evaluation of his perception. Social determination (through a type of mental activity) explains the emergence of a particular emotion. Cultural and historical determination also determines the forms of expression of emotions, the processes of their self-regulation. A general psychological theory of emotions must also immanently include these aspects of emotional phenomena. Finally, the general psychological concept of emotions should also include ideas about the mechanisms for the realization of emotions, i.e. about the psycho-physiological patterns that ensure their implementation.

PC. Anokhin developed a biological theory of emotions, in which he emphasizes the adaptive nature of emotional reactions, their regulatory function in ensuring the behavior and adaptation of the body to changing environmental conditions. Anokhin identifies two main stages in the life of any organism: the stage of the emergence of a need and the formation of motivation, and the stage of satisfaction of a need. Each of these stages is necessarily accompanied by emotions: the first - mostly negative, the second - mostly positive.

Emotions are the leading component of the information assessment by the brain of internal needs and the action of external factors. If the problem of emotions is considered from a biological point of view, then it will be necessary to recognize that emotional sensations have become fixed as a kind of tool that keeps the life process within its optimal boundaries and prevents the destructive nature of a lack or excess of any life factors of a given organism. The emotional level of mental activity is genetically determined and does not require special training.

Negative emotions always arise and intensify in those cases when there is a mismatch in the activity of a functional system: when metabolic needs arise and are not satisfied, when damaging factors act on the body, when information about the results achieved does not correspond to those programmed in the acceptor.

Positive emotions are formed in all cases when the subject achieves the required results. Based on the repeated satisfaction of the same type of need, a prediction of a positive emotion is formed when this need is satisfied due to its inclusion in the acceptor of the result of the action.

It turns out that emotional reactions are one of the most important components of the learning process.

So, in accordance with the biological theory of emotions P.K. Anokhin, leading emotions with a negative sign signal the body about deviations in its internal environment (hunger, thirst), which activates the corresponding program of actions. Completion of purposeful actions is accompanied by a positive emotional background, which is fixed in the animal's memory as "receipt of a reward." Explaining his position, Anokhin gives an example when a predator purposefully pursues its prey for many days, which is accompanied by both negative experiences (feeling of hunger) and positive ones (the process of saturation). Thus: “leading emotions participate in the formation of a functional system, determining the vector, that is, the direction of behavior, goal setting, and the formation of an acceptor of the result of an action. Situational emotions that arise when evaluating individual stages of an action make it possible to correct behavior and achieve the goal.

Thus, the main information load in biological theory is carried by its sign, which marks the program of behavior and gives the latter a certain direction.

The understanding of the psyche as a reflection of reality and regulation of behavior and activity on this basis is taken as the basis for considering the psyche as a single integral functional system in philosophy and psychology. From such an understanding of the nature and purpose of the psyche, the question naturally arose of what exactly should be reflected in the psyche, what should be represented in it in order for the behavior to be adequate to external and internal conditions, and the activity to be successful. The system of basic mental processes necessary for successful behavior in the environment and for successful activity is built as follows:

1. The actual objective reality that exists in a given space at a given moment in time should be reflected.

2. Events must be presented that may take place in the future and take place in space beyond its immediate givenness.

1 and 2 are cognitive processes that form cognitive subsystem of the psyche, including sensations and perception, anticipatory reflection of reality in the form of various kinds of ancipations and extrapolations, imagination, thinking.

3. The needs of one's own body and personality should be reflected. This - need-motivational subsystem psyche.

4. The significance for the organism and the individual (positive or negative) of certain external factors, their own internal states, as well as the results of the interaction of the organism and the individual with the environment - natural and social - should be reflected in a direct, immediate sensual form. These are emotions and feelings that form emotional subsystem of the psyche.

5. It is imperative to have information about how reality is reflected in the psyche of other people: what they feel and perceive at the moment, what they know and understand, what they think about, what they foresee and how, what they feel, what their needs are, etc. P. Without taking into account information about the content of the psyche of other people (theoretically - all, but in specific acts of behavior and activity, of course, only some, depending on the circumstances), no behavior adequate to external conditions and no successful activity is simply impossible. At the same time, each person, if he wants the behavior and activities of other people to be somehow consistent with his own vision of the world, his own feelings and needs, must transmit to them the data of the content of his psyche. These two-way processes of exchanging the contents and states of people's own psyche are carried out communicative subsystem of the psyche, including non-verbal and verbal-sign communication.

6. Of course, it is necessary to take into account all the past successful experience in reflecting and regulating behavior and activities. This - memory subsystem.

7. However, the processes of reflection are only one side of the matter, since the vital task of the psyche is to carry out behavior and activity adequate to the external environment and internal states of the subject. This means that synthesis is necessary, the integration of all information coming from the six subsystems of the psyche mentioned above. It's being done central, integration-volitional subsystem where there is a synthesis of all information coming from other subsystems, decision-making processes take place, goals, plans and programs of behavior are developed.

8. Any mental activity requires the necessary activation-energetic support for the work of all other subsystems, including the integration-volitional one. This provision is made activation-energy subsystem psyche. At the same time, the more difficult tasks and situations a person faces, the more requirements are placed on the integral functional system of his psyche and on its individual subsystems, the more (not necessarily linearly and, of course, up to a certain individually determined limit) its activation- energy subsystem.

The integration-volitional and activation-energetic subsystems appear in evolution later after more or less relative differentiation of the other subsystems, when it becomes necessary to coordinate and integrate their functions in the organization of adaptive acts (or cycles) of behavior. In the brain of a modern person, the highest integrative center is the frontal lobes of the cerebral cortex, the so-called prefrontal cortex. Its anatomical and functional connections indicate that it receives impulses from all subsystems of the developed functional system of the psyche:

1) projection and association areas of the cortex (cognitive and anticipatory subsystems);
2) the hypothalamus and related structures (need-motivational subsystem);
3) limbic system (emotional subsystem);
4) hippocampus and related structures (memory subsystem);
5) speech areas of the cortex (subsystem of speech communication);
6) reticular formation of the brainstem and other activating non-specific structures (energy-activation substructure).

Function blocksbrain
Human mental processes are complex functional systems, and they are not localized in narrow, limited areas of the brain, but are carried out with the participation of complex complexes of jointly working brain apparatus, each of which contributes to the organization of this functional system. That is why it becomes necessary to find out what basic functional units the human brain consists of, how it is built and what role each of them plays in the implementation of complex forms of mental activity.

There are three main functional blocks, or three main apparatuses of the brain, the participation of which is necessary for the implementation of any kind of mental activity. With some approximation to the truth, they can be designated as:

1) a block that provides the regulation of tone and wakefulness;
2) a block for receiving, processing and storing information coming from the outside world;
3) block of programming, regulation and control of mental activity.

Each of these main blocks has a hierarchical structure and consists of at least three types of cortical zones built on top of each other: primary (or projection), where impulses come from the periphery or from where impulses are sent to the periphery, secondary (or projection-associative), where there is a processing of the information received or the preparation of appropriate programs, and, finally, tertiary (or overlap zones), which are the latest developing apparatus of the cerebral hemispheres and which in humans provide the most complex forms of mental activity that require the joint participation of many areas of the cerebral cortex.

1. Block of regulation of tone and wakefulness. In order to ensure the full flow of mental processes, a person must be in a state of wakefulness. It is known that only under optimal conditions of wakefulness a person can receive and process information, recall the necessary selective systems of connections, program his activity and control the course of his mental processes, correcting mistakes and maintaining the direction of his activity.

It is well known that in the state of sleep, a clear regulation of mental processes is impossible, emerging memories and associations become unorganized, and directed selective (selective) performance of mental activity becomes impossible.

The fact that in order to carry out organized, purposeful activity it is necessary to maintain the optimal tone of the cortex was also said by I.P. a bright spot "moving along the cerebral cortex as you move from one activity to another and personifying the point of optimal excitation.

The development of electrophysiological technology made it possible to see this "spot" of optimal excitation: with the help of a special device - "toposcope" by M.N. Livanov (1962), which makes it possible to simultaneously record electrical activity in 50-100 points of the cerebral cortex, one can observe how In the cerebral cortex of a waking animal, a “spot” of optimal excitation actually appears, how it moves when the animal passes from one state to another, and how, in a pathological state, it gradually loses its mobility, becomes inert or completely extinguished.

IP Pavlov not only pointed out the need for an optimal state of the cerebral cortex for the implementation of organized activity, but also discovered the basic neurodynamic laws for the emergence of such an optimal state. As shown by numerous studies of the Pavlovian school, the processes of excitation and inhibition occurring in the waking cortex obey the law of force, are characterized by a certain concentration, balance and mobility.

These basic laws of neurodynamics do not apply to states of sleep or fatigue. This is the result of the fact that in the so-called "inhibitory" or "phase" states, the tone of the cortex decreases and, as a result, the law of force is violated: weak stimuli are equalized with strong ones in the intensity of the responses they evoke ("equalizing phase") or even exceed them, causing more intense reactions than those caused by strong stimuli ("paradoxical phase"), in some cases, reactions persist only in response to weak stimuli, while strong stimuli generally cease to cause any responses ("ultraparadoxical phase"). "). In addition, as the tone of the cortex decreases, the normal ratio of excitatory and inhibitory processes and the mobility that is necessary for the flow of normal mental activity are disturbed. All this points to the decisive importance of having an optimal cortical tone for the organized flow of mental activity.

However, the question arises: what apparatuses of the brain ensure the maintenance of the optimal tone of the cortex, which we have just talked about? What parts of the brain regulate and change the tone of the cortex, maintaining it for the right time and increasing it when the need arises?

One of the most important discoveries in this regard was the establishment of the fact that the apparatuses that provide and regulate the tone of the cortex may not be located in the cortex itself, but in the underlying stem and subcortical regions of the brain, and that these apparatuses are in a dual relationship with the cortex, toning it and at the same time experiencing its regulating influence.

In 1949, two prominent researchers, Magun and Moruzzi, discovered that in the brain stem regions there is a special nerve formation, which, both in its morphological structure and in its functional properties, is adapted to play the role of a mechanism that regulates the state of the brain. bark, i.e. able to change her tone and ensure her wakefulness.

This formation is built according to the type of nervous network, in which the bodies of nerve cells are interspersed, connected to each other by short processes. Through the network of this formation, called reticular formation, excitation does not spread in separate, isolated impulses, not according to the “all or nothing” law, but gradually, gradually changing its level and, thus, modulating the state of the entire nervous apparatus.

2. Block of reception, processing and storage of information. This block is located in the convexital (outer) sections of the neocortex (neocortex) and occupies its posterior sections, including the apparatuses of the visual (occipital), auditory (temporal) and general sensitive (parietal) areas. According to its histological structure, it consists of neurons of the subcortex and cerebral cortex. These neurons, unlike the devices of the first block, do not work according to the principle of gradual changes, but according to the “all or nothing” law, receiving individual impulses and transmitting them to other groups of neurons.

The apparatuses of this (as well as the next) block have a hierarchical structure, breaking up into primary (projection) zones that receive information and split it into the smallest components, secondary (projection-associative) zones that provide coding (synthesis) of these components and transform somatotopic projection into a functional organization, and tertiary zones (or overlap zones), which ensure the joint work of various analyzers and the development of supramodal (symbolic) schemes that underlie complex forms of cognitive activity.

According to their functional features, the apparatuses of this block are adapted to receive exteroceptive stimuli coming to the brain from peripheral receptors, to break them up into a huge number of components (in other words, to analyze them into the smallest component parts) and to combine them into the necessary dynamic functional structures ( in other words, to their synthesis into whole functional systems).

Thus, this functional block of the brain has a high modal specificity: its constituent parts are adapted to receive visual, auditory, vestibular or general sensitive information. The systems of this block also include the central apparatuses of gustatory and olfactory reception, but in humans they are so pushed aside by the central representations of higher exteroceptive, distant analyzers that they occupy an insignificant place in the cerebral cortex.

3. Block of programming, regulation and control of complex forms of activity. The reception, processing and storage of external information constitute only one side of a person's mental life. Its other side is the organization of active conscious mental activity. The third of the main functional blocks of the brain is connected with this task - the block of programming, regulation and control over ongoing activity.

A person not only passively reacts to incoming signals. He forms plans and programs for his actions, monitors their implementation and regulates his behavior, bringing it into line with these plans and programs; finally, he controls his conscious activity, comparing the effect of his actions with the original intentions and correcting his mistakes.

All this happens with the active participation of emotions. Emotion is a special form of mental reflection, which in the form of direct experience reflects not objective phenomena, but a subjective attitude towards them. The peculiarity of emotions is that they reflect the significance of objects and situations acting on the subject, due to the relationship of their objective properties to the needs of the subject. Emotions serve as a link between reality and needs. It can be argued that emotions arise as a result of exposure to a certain stimulus, and their appearance is nothing more than a manifestation of the mechanisms of human adaptation and regulation of his behavior.

The processes of regulation and control of conscious activity require completely different brain apparatuses than those of the first and second blocks. If even in simple reflex acts, along with the afferent side, there is an effector side and feedback apparatuses serve as a control servomechanism, then such special control nerve formations are all the more necessary in complex mental acts. These tasks are served by the devices of the third block of the brain. The apparatuses of the third functional block are located in the anterior sections of the cerebral hemispheres, in front of the anterior central gyrus.

The interaction of the three main functional blocks of the brain. It would be wrong to think that each of these blocks can independently carry out one or another form of activity, considering, for example, that the second functional block fully performs the function of perception and thinking, and the third - the function of movement and construction of actions.

Having accepted the position on the systemic structure of complex psychological processes, we must take a different point of view. Each form of conscious activity is always a complex functional system and is carried out based on the joint work of all three blocks of the brain, each of which contributes to the implementation of the mental process as a whole. The facts, which are well established by modern psychology, make this proposition indisputable.

Long gone are the days when psychologists viewed mental functions as isolated "capacities" each of which could be localized to a specific area of ​​the brain. Another concept was also rejected, according to which mental processes were presented according to the model of a reflex arc, the first part of which was purely afferent in nature and performed the functions of sensation and perception, while the second - effector - part completely carried out movements and actions.

Modern ideas about the structure of mental processes are based on the model of a reflex ring or a complex self-regulating system, each link of which includes both afferent and efferent components and which, in general, has the character of a complex and active mental activity.

Consider this with two examples: perception and movement, or action. We will do this only in the most general terms.

It is known that sensation includes motor components, and modern psychology considers sensation, and even more so perception, as a reflex act containing both afferent and efferent links; to be convinced of the complex active nature of sensations, it is enough to recall that even in animals they include the process of selection of biologically significant features, and in humans they also include the active coding influence of language. The active nature of the processes appears even more clearly in complex objective perception. It is well known that object perception is not only polyreceptor in nature, relying on the joint work of a whole group of analyzers, but always includes active motor components in its composition. The decisive role of eye movements in visual perception was noted by I.M. Sechenov (1874–1878), but this was proved only recently. It has been shown in a number of psychophysiological studies that the motionless eye practically cannot perceive an image consisting of many components, and that complex object perception involves active, searching eye movements that highlight the necessary features, and only gradually, as it develops, takes on a convoluted character.

All these facts convince us that perception is carried out with the joint participation of all those functional blocks of the brain, of which the first provides the necessary tone of the cortex, the second analyzes and synthesizes incoming information, and the third provides directed search movements, thereby creating an active nature of perceiving activity. .

It is precisely such a complex structure of perception that explains why its disturbances can occur when various, far from each other, brain apparatuses are affected. The same can be said about the construction of arbitrary movement and action.

The participation of efferent mechanisms in the construction of movement is self-evident; however, N.A. Bernstein (1947) showed that movement cannot be controlled by efferent impulses alone and that its organized flow requires constant afferent processes that signal the state of the joints and muscles, the position of the segments of the moving apparatus, and those spatial coordinates in which the movement proceeds.

Thus, voluntary movement, and even more so objective action, relies on the joint work of the most diverse parts of the brain, and if the devices of the first block provide the necessary muscle tone, without which no coordinated movement would be possible, then the devices of the second block make it possible to carry out those afferent syntheses, in the system of which movement occurs, and the devices of the third block ensure the subordination of movement and action to the corresponding intentions, create programs for the execution of motor acts and provide that regulation and control of the course of movements, thanks to which its organized, meaningful nature is preserved.

Reaction (from lat. re - against + actio - action)- action, state, process arising in response to c.-l. influence, stimulus, impression. In a broad biological sense, Reaction means a natural response of an organism to external influences.

In psychology, a reaction is primarily an act of behavior, incl. arbitrary movement, mediated by the task and arising in response to the presentation of a signal, but sometimes R. is called sensations, ideas, thoughts, emotional experiences, and even moods that arise in response to a certain impact; e.g. L.S. Vygotsky wrote about the most complex aesthetic reactions. Any reaction is characterized by speed, intensity, and form of flow. The measurement of these characteristics of R. created psychometrics as a branch of psychology. Depending on the characteristics underlying the classifications, different types of R. are distinguished in psychology and other frontier sciences, for example. behavioral, physiological, emotional, etc.; voluntary and involuntary reactions. Cm . Also Reaction time , Reflex .

Choice reaction- cm . Reaction time , Hick's law .
Desynchronization reaction- cm . Attention physiological mechanisms .
The pacing response- cm . Electrophysiological methods .

Dictionary of practical psychologist. S.Yu. Golovin

Reaction in psychology - any response of an organism to a change in the external or internal environment, from the biochemical reaction of an individual cell to a conditioned reflex. The concept was introduced into psychology by the founder of behaviorism - Watson. Congenital reactions and acquired reactions are distinguished.

Dictionary of psychiatric terms. V.M. Bleikher, I.V. Crook

Reactions- in psychiatry: pathological changes in mental activity in response to a mental trauma or an unfavorable life situation. In their origin, an important role is played by factors of constitutional predisposition, personality traits, the somatic condition of the patient, his age. Occur on a neurotic (see neuroses) or psychotic (reactive psychoses) level. Both those and others belong to the clinical group of reactive states, however, reactive psychoses, unlike neuroses, are characterized by greater acuteness of development, lability of symptoms, its greater severity, pronounced psychomotor and affective disorders, the presence of psychopathological products (delusions, hallucinations, disorders of consciousness) , behavioral disorders. Reactive psychoses are characterized by significant reversibility of psychopathological disorders.

Reaction alcoholic hysterical- hysterical reaction in a state of intoxication. Intoxication, as a rule, facilitates the manifestation of hysterical forms of response, even in persons without previously expressed hysteria. It is characterized by deliberately demonstrative behavior, exaggerated response to the environment, suicidal statements and attempts, usually made in the presence of others and also defiantly, for example, the patient inflicts numerous superficial skin cuts on himself with a knife or razor in the forearm area. It is usually observed already in the presence of alcoholic degradation of the personality according to the psychopathic type, in the second stage of alcoholism.

Reactions are abnormal[Ushakov GK, 1978] - the simplest, elementary forms of disorders that constitute the initial element in the formation of personality anomalies. They are characterized by a change in the forms of reactions to a stimulus, inadequacy of the reaction to the stimulus in terms of strength and content. Clinically, neurotic, neurosis-like, psychopathic and psychopathic reactions are distinguished. Increased frequency, thickening of abnormal reactions leads to the so-called transient developments and in the future - to the formation of acquired psychopathy.

Asthenic reaction- characterized by an acute asthenic condition that occurs in a psychogenic traumatic situation. Complaints of general weakness, increased irritability, poor sleep, memory loss, disability, and poor health are characteristic. Hypothymia. R. affective-shock. It is characterized by an acute onset of the affect of fear or horror, narrowing of consciousness, movement disorders. A short-term psychotic state that occurs in extreme life-threatening situations.

Affective-shock hyperkinetic reaction- a variety of R.a.-sh., characterized by erratic psychomotor agitation.

Affective-shock hypokinetic reaction- a variety of R.a.-sh., characterized by motor stupor, stupor.

Affective acute reactions in adolescents[Lichko A.E., 1985] - states of extreme emotional stress caused by psychic trauma or a crisis situation. They last from several minutes to many hours and even days. The affect does not reach the psychotic level, the phenomena of disorientation and subsequent amnesia are absent.

• a) Aggressive reaction (extrapunitive) - manifests itself in the form of an attack on the offenders, beating them, or in the form of venting anger on random persons, in the form of destructive actions in relation to the things of the offenders or objects that accidentally come into view. R. is aimed at discharging affect, reacting.
• b) The reaction is auto-aggressive (intrapunitive) - causing damage to oneself up to attempted suicide. When self-inflicted injuries, such as cuts, there are no demonstrative tendencies.
• c) Impunitive reaction - the affect is discharged by escaping from a traumatic situation (escapes from home, from a boarding school).
• d) The reaction is demonstrative - against the background of extreme affective tension, there are tendencies to attract attention, arouse sympathy, pity, get rid of troubles. Most often, demonstrative suicidal attempts are observed, deliberately delinquent behavior.

Flight reaction- a primitive reaction of the senseless, aimless. One of the forms of hypobulic mechanisms.

Grouping reactions with peers- are manifested in the desire of adolescents to form more or less spontaneous groups united by informal relationships. Group crimes are not uncommon. According to O.V. Kerbikov, R. Pedagogically neglected children are especially prone to this kind.

The reaction is depressive- R. in the form of psychogenic depression - low mood, dreary affect, psychogenic traumatic circumstances sound in experiences.

Simulation reaction[Kovalev V.V., 1979] - one of the forms of characterological reactions in children and adolescents. Characterized by changes in behavior associated with imitation of the behavior of others who seem authoritative to the child or adolescent. In most cases, they do not have a pathological character, that is, they are characterological R., however, the possibility of a transition to neurotic disorders and the development of socially negative behavior is not ruled out.

Hypochondriacal reaction- is manifested by fears for one's health, often - the conviction that the patient suffers from a serious somatic disease. It is often characterized by hysterical mechanisms of "escape to the disease". R. hysterical - manifested by hysterical forms of response.

Compensation and overcompensation response[Kovalev VV, 1979] - a form of transient behavioral disorders in children and adolescents. There is an increase in personal manifestations and protective forms of behavior appear, masking the weaknesses of the personality. A kind of attempt to get rid of the feelings of their own inferiority. They can be both characterological and pathocharacterological R. This type of R. includes compensatory fantasies of a substitutive nature, the manifestation of ostentatious bravado, violations of school discipline, attributing misconduct and crimes to oneself, etc.

Reactions personal affective paraadaptive[K. Zaimov, 1981] - short-term or longer-term reactions caused by a state of affective tension and characterized by a deviation from adequate forms of behavior. They remain close to normal human experiences. Thinking takes on the character of overvalued experiences and never reaches the level of delusional formation. Observed in mentally healthy and with personal accentuation. The interpretation of their nature is connected with the identification of a single psychophysiological, affective-behavioral system that combines the levels of unconditional reflex (instinctive) and conditioned reflex activity, obeying the principles of Vvedensky-Sherington's reciprocal innervation and I.P. Pavlova. There are two main types of reactions: compensatory and inversion. With the first, the nature of the activity remains the same, only the object changes, with the second, the action passes into another subsystem, for example, auto-aggression is replaced by aggression. Some variants of affective para-adaptive reactions of a personality are phenomenologically close to individual variants of manifestations of psychological defense mechanisms according to S. Freud.

Imaginary death reaction- primitive hypobulic R., manifested outwardly by a state of complete immobility. R., due to emerging sexual desire [Lichko A.E., 1977] - personal reactions of adolescence associated with increased, but not sufficiently differentiated sexual desire (masturbation, promiscuity, transient homosexual tendencies, etc.).

Opposition reactions- see R. protest.

Refusal reaction- a form of pathocharacterological reactions in children and adolescents. Manifested by the loss of initiative, the experience of lack of prospects, a feeling of despair, avoidance of contact with others, fear of everything new, passivity, "renunciation of claims." It is often observed in children who have lost their parents and ended up in closed children's institutions in conditions of improper upbringing.

Pull-off reaction- occurs with prolonged isolation of a person from the team and the familiar environment. There are affective tension, excitement, anxiety, fear, sometimes, on the contrary, causeless fun.

The reaction is paranoid- characterized by delusional experiences and hallucinations, but their content is close to the psychogenic traumatic situation that gave rise to R.

Reactions are paranoid[Molokhov A.N., 1940]. Psychogenic reactions, which are based on overvalued ideas that reflect pathological purposefulness. R.p. serve as the beginning of paranoid development. The most typical are litigation and delusions of jealousy. The development of overvalued ideas into delusional ones occurs at the height of affect, when the catatim of thinking is especially pronounced. Unlike reactive paranoids, an important role is played by a special structure of the psyche, without which it is impossible to develop an overvalued idea into a delusional one - the nature of the life of inclinations, egocentrism, a special orientation of interests, a tendency to catatim thinking. R.p. premise - epileptoid personality traits. According to K. Leonhard, R.p. are especially often observed in cases of a combination of paranoid-stuck and epileptoid-excitable features of personality accentuation and psychopathy. The distinction between paranoid reactions and development is very conditional. Obviously, about the end of R.p. in those rare cases when it does not grow into development, one can only judge retrospectively.

Pathological reactions[Kovalev V.V., 1973] - reactive states in children and adolescents, mainly manifested by behavioral disorders, leading to socio-psychological maladjustment and often accompanied by neurotic, somatovegetative disorders. They take a long course, lasting weeks, months and even years. Often lead to psychopathic developments and pathocharacterological personality formations.

Reactions are primitive- R., due to hypobulic, according to E. Kretschmer, mechanisms. They include R. flight, panic, imaginary death, etc., including explosive - impulsive panic reactions, screams, affective stupor.

Reaction primitive delusional- manifested in a delusional interpretation of what is happening around. Connected in its genesis with the affect of fear. The events of the surrounding reality are interpreted in a delusional way in terms of experiences caused by psychogenic experiences, for example, the fear of arrest leads to the emergence of psychogenic delusional ideas of relationship, persecution (imaginary surveillance).

Protest reactions[Kovalev VV, 1979] - forms of transient behavioral disorders in children and adolescents. They can be characterological and pathocharacterological.

The first are manifested in the form of disobedience, rudeness, defiant, sometimes aggressive behavior. They are observed in a psychogenic-traumatic situation, have a clear focus, and are short-lived. More often observed in emotionally excitable children. The latter are distinguished by a greater intensity of manifestations, necessarily aggressive, up to cruelty, behavior, and a pronounced vegetative component. They are prone to repetition and fixation, while disturbed behavior becomes habitual. Possible R. passive protest - elective mutism, leaving, suicidal behavior. Syn.: R. opposition.

Situational reaction- P., remaining as long as the unfavorable situation lasts.

Psychic personal reaction- a type of psychogenic R., in the formation of the symptoms of which premorbid personality traits play a significant role, for example, R. hysterical in a hysteroid personality.

litigious reaction- see R. paranoid.

Thymopsychic reaction- primitive R., proceeding with fear, depression, reactive characterological changes.

entrainment reaction[Lichko A.E., 1973] - personal reactions of predominantly adolescence. They are characterized by excessively pronounced hobbies (gambling, sports, amateur performances, etc.), which lead to behavioral disorders and social maladjustment - studies start, contacts are established with asocial persons, delinquent behavior is manifested. Often occurs at the level of overvalued formations. Syn: hobby-reactions.

Reaction fixed- R., accepting the protracted course, despite the completion of an unfavorable situation, the disappearance of mental trauma. At the same time, overvalued ideas arise and pathological (paranoid) development of the personality is often observed.

Characteristic reactions[Kovalev V.V., 1973] - non-pathological behavioral disorders in children, manifesting themselves only in a certain situation, not leading to maladaptation in various areas of personal relationships and not accompanied by somatovegetative disorders.

Reactions of the schizoid type[Frumkin Ya.P., 1928] - acute and reactive changes in the personality of the schizoid type, a characterological reaction of the type of "schizoidization" of the personality. A reactively conditioned characterological shift is manifested in the strengthening of the patient's inherent constitutional and personal characteristics.
Synonym: acute schizoid state. Compare: Gannushkin's eiileptoid type of reaction.

R. schizophrenic, schizophrenic- a generalizing concept covering a number of non-procedural, reactively arising and proceeding with schizoform symptoms, states:

1. Schizophrenic type of reaction. Somatogenic and psychogenic conditioned reactions occurring with schizophrenia-like symptoms. There are no procedurally defective changes.
2. Schizoid type of reaction. Somatogenic and psychogenic reactions in schizoids. Constitutional predisposition is an obligatory factor, which, according to the author, brings them closer to true schizophrenia.
3. Schizomania. Acute psychotic schizoform states that occur in schizoid psychopaths and tend to reverse.
4. Psychogenic-neurotic reactions occurring with schizophrenic symptoms. The author, who stood on the positions of E. Kretschmer, saw the difference between the norm, schizoidia and schizophrenia only in quantitative terms, and with such criteria he approached the assessment of R.sh.
5. According to the nomenclature of diseases in 1952. in the United States, in accordance with the concept of A. Meyer - acute schizophrenia.
6. According to G. Langfeldt, psychotic states that begin as acute schizophrenia and develop in individuals premorbidly without manifestations of schizoidia and with good social adaptation, always manifesting in connection with psychogeny, exogenous factors. Prognosis is favorable.

R. exogenous type acute- Mental disorders that occur exogenously and are mainly in the nature of states of disturbed consciousness. The number of forms of acute exogenous reactions in response to various external hazards is relatively limited. Modern researchers combine acute exogenous reactions into the concept of an acute psychosyndrome, followed by transient syndromes, followed by either recovery or the formation of a chronic psychosyndrome, the variants of which are organic psychosyndrome and cerebral focal psychosyndrome.

R. emancipation[Ivanov N.Ya., 1973] - personal reactions of predominantly pubertal age, characterized by an increased desire of adolescents for independence, independence from parents and patronage of adults. In extreme cases, teenagers leave home, sometimes they begin to wander.

R. epileptoid type[Gannushkin P.B., 1927] - long-term, often recurring and due to the influence of psychogenic factors, adverse life situation reactions. They are manifested by dysphoric symptoms directed against others, anger, anger, longing. These states mow down a transient character, sometimes lasting for months. After them, there remains a readiness for further pathological development of the personality. They usually occur in individuals with varying degrees of severity of epileptoid properties, in which, according to P.B. Gannushkin, "an epileptoid circle ... if not clearly expressed, then at least outlined." As a psychotic episode, they can be observed in a number of pathological processes (epidemic encephalitis, traumatic brain injury, cerebral atherosclerosis).
Synonym: acute epileptic condition, epileptic reaction.

Neurology. Complete explanatory dictionary. Nikiforov A.S.

Aversion reaction (from lat. ayersio - turning away to the other side)- psychogenic or pathophysiological loss of perception of the outside world with the help of the senses. It can arise as a psychological defense in a hysterical personality, in severe depression, in a state of acute situationally conditioned stress reaction, in connection with the idea of ​​the presence of a severe organic disease. Usually patients lie with their eyes closed and do not react to their surroundings. The frequency and depth of respiration are often normal, but there may be an increase in respiration. Pupils without features. With a caloric test (see), the reaction is invariably normal: nystagmus with a fast phase directed to the side opposite to the ear irrigated with ice water, which indicates that the patient has a state of wakefulness. It is not uncommon for the examiner to passively raise the eyelids to feel active resistance, with the eyelids closing rapidly when released. Muscle tone is normal, tendon reflexes are sometimes actively inhibited. EEG is characteristic of the state of wakefulness.

Pupillary reaction Tournai- during a sharp turn of the gaze, a narrowing of the pupil in the averted eye is noted after a few seconds. After the gaze returns to its primary position, the constricted pupil immediately returns to its original size. R. h. T. is possible with various diseases: neurolues, epilepsy, neuroses, etc. It is also possible in practically healthy people. Described by Tournay.

Reaction "short circuit"- long-term suppression of negative emotions can lead to a violent non-specific affective reaction, sometimes arising on a seemingly insignificant occasion and sometimes leading to a criminal situation, up to murder. Described in 1925. E. Kretschmer at the girls' nannies in the analysis of cases of murder by them of wards of infants. In 1888 in the story “I want to sleep”, this situation is reflected by A.P. Chekhov.

Pupil reaction to accommodation- constriction of the pupil of one eye (while the other eye is covered) when looking from a distant object to an object (text) that is close. Helps to fix the image of the object on the retina. Reflex arc: its afferent part passes along the optic nerve, the efferent part - along the parasympathetic fibers of the oculomotor cranial nerve, through the ciliary ganglion to the muscle that narrows the pupil. The arc closes in the subcortical visual centers, it includes the parasympathetic nuclei of the III cranial nerve, the medial longitudinal bundle, and intercalary neurons.

Pupil reaction to light is direct- constriction of the pupil (miosis) in response to increased illumination. The manifestation of the protection of the retina and its photoreceptors from an overdose of light energy acting on them. Along with retinomotor reactions, it promotes light and dark adaptation. The reflex arc passes along the optic and oculomotor nerves. Closes in the midbrain. Physiological response.

Pupillary reaction to light is friendly- constriction of the pupil of one eye when the intensity of illumination of the other eye increases. The reflex arc passes along the optic and oculomotor nerves. Closes in the midbrain. Physiological response. The reaction of the pupil is neuronotonic. See Pupillotonia.

Pupillary response to convergence- constriction of the pupils when fixing the gaze on an object approaching the bridge of the nose. It helps to optimize the image of the object on the retina of both eyes. Reflex arc: its afferent part passes along the II cranial nerve, the efferent part - along the parasympathetic fibers of the III cranial nerve, through the ciliary ganglion to the muscle that narrows the pupil. The arc closes in the subcortical visual centers, the parasympathetic nuclei of the oculomotor nerve, in the medial longitudinal bundle, intercalary neurons, which ensure the synchronism of the function of these structures on both sides (see also - Pupil reaction to light).

Pupillary Bern's reaction- dilation of the pupils with painful irritation of the lower body. Described by Bern. Physiological response. The skin reaction is psychogalvanic. Syn.: Tarkhanov's phenomenon. A change in the potential difference and a decrease in electrical resistance between two areas of the skin (for example, the palm and the back of the hand), which occur under the influence of stimuli that cause an emotional reaction. Described by the domestic physiologist I.R. Tarkhanov (1846-1908).

Acute stress response- so, according to ICD 10 (F43.0.), Clinical manifestations of a neurotic reaction are indicated if the symptomatology characteristic of it persists for a short period - from several hours to 3 days. In this case, stunnedness, some narrowing of the field of consciousness, decreased attention, inability to adequately respond to external stimuli, and disorientation are possible. Partial or complete amnesia of the stress factor is possible.

Delayed response to stress- manifests itself after a certain latent period (from several weeks to 6 months) after an acute severe emotional stress (catastrophe, fire, rape, torture, etc.). At the same time, obsessive memories, reminiscences (see), dreams, nightmares against the background of emotional dullness, "numbness", lack of reaction to current events, avoidance of cases and situations that directly or indirectly remind of the experienced psychotrauma are characteristic. Against this background, the patient may experience acute, dramatic outbreaks of fear, panic, and aggression. Often all this happens against the background of increased emotional stress, anxiety, agitated depression (see), insomnia, as a rule, there are increased emotional and autonomic excitability. There may be cravings for alcohol, drugs, suicidal thoughts. The course is undulating, but in most cases recovery is possible.

Nonne–Apelt reaction- a qualitative method for detecting an increase in the content of globulins in the cerebrospinal fluid, based on determining the degree of turbidity of the mixture from equal amounts of the investigated cerebrospinal fluid and a reagent, which is a saturated solution of ammonium sulfate. The severity of the reaction is determined by the crosses, as in the Pandey reaction (see). The test can be carried out in the process of diagnostic lumbar puncture. Proposed by German neuropathologists Nonne (1861-1969) and Apelt (1877-1911).

Rademaker support reaction- tension in the muscles of the legs in a standing position. Physiological response.

Pandey's reaction- a qualitative method for detecting an increase in globulins in the cerebrospinal fluid, based on determining the degree of turbidity of the Pandey reagent when the test cerebrospinal fluid is added to it in the proportion: 1 drop of cerebrospinal fluid per milliliter of the reagent. The turbidity of the reagent is directly proportional to the content of globulins in the CSF and is indicated by crosses: slight turbidity +, intense (milk color) ++++, intermediate turbidity ++ or +++. Composition of Pandy's reagent: 1 part of crystalline carbolic acid to 15 parts of distilled water. The test can be carried out in the process of diagnostic lumbar puncture. Described by the Hungarian neurologist Pandy. The "support" reaction in newborns - see Balducci-Peiper reflex.

Jump reaction- with the threat of falling to the side, the leg on this side jerks in the same direction, and the other leg at this time comes off the floor. Physiological response.

Psychogenic reaction- a generalized designation of temporary changes in the mental state. Variants of such reactions: affective, alcoholic, asthenic, depressive, hysterical, neurotic, hypochondriacal, paranoid, panic, etc. Reaction of an emphasis. If a standing person is pushed to the side, then the edges of the feet on the side from which the push was made rise, and he rests mainly on opposite sides of the feet. Physiological response.

Raynaud's syndrome cold reaction- in response to cooling, a “three-phase” color response develops in a certain sequence: bilateral, symmetrical, alternating pallor, cyanosis and redness of the fingers, less often the feet. The most pronounced element in this case is the first phase - the phase of blanching, during which the fingers can become completely white. More common in women.

The reaction is epileptic- a single epileptiform seizure (see), provoked by exogenous or endogenous factors.

Oxford Dictionary of Psychology

Reaction

1. Basically - "reaction", response, action, movement, etc., which the body performs in response to stimulation.
2. In a broader sense, a group or social reaction to social change. What is meant here is that this kind of reaction is politically or culturally conservative in an extreme or reactionary way.
3. In psychiatry, a cluster of behavioral acts or a syndrome characteristic of a particular disorder. Often the longer expression response model is used, see response shaping.

Flight reaction- a psychiatric disorder characterized by the sudden and unforeseen departure from the home of a person who takes on a new identity somewhere else. During the flight there is no memory of the former life, and after recovery there is amnesia for the events of this period. It is often called dissociative psychogenic flight in order to distinguish it from other syndromes that have similar symptoms but are caused by known organic dysfunctions.

Slip reaction

1. Inability to accurately place the finger on some specified part of the body. This may be a sign of various neurological disorders.
2. Tendency to point farther than a certain place, following rapid rotational movements of the whole body. This, unlike a value of 1, is a sign that the vestibular system is functioning normally.

Alarm release response- the term was created by behavioral therapists to refer to an acquired operant response that can be used to reduce or relieve anxiety. The technique is to link a response (usually saying aloud or mentally a word like calmly or "relax") with the cessation of a painful stimulus (eg, electric shock). Such a response, now associated with a sense of release from anxiety, can (at least in principle) be used in other anxious moments or under other circumstances.

subject area of ​​the term