Chemistry and chemical education at the turn of the century: changing goals, methods and generations.
Yuri Alexandrovich Ustynyuk – Doctor of Chemistry, Honored Professor of Moscow State University, Head of the NMR Laboratory of the Faculty of Chemistry of Moscow State University. Research interests - organometallic and coordination chemistry, physical organic chemistry, spectroscopy, catalysis, problems of chemical education.
In the discussion about what constitutes chemical science as a whole and its separate areas at the turn of the century, many very authoritative authors have already spoken. With some differences in particulars, the general tone of all statements is clearly major. Outstanding achievements in all major areas of chemical research are unanimously noted. All experts note the exceptionally important role that new and latest methods of studying the structure of matter and the dynamics of chemical processes have played in achieving these successes. Equally unanimous is the opinion about the huge impact on the development of chemistry that has occurred over the past two decades, before our eyes, the universal and all-pervading computerization of science. All authors support the thesis about the strengthening of interdisciplinary interaction both at the junctions of chemical disciplines, and between all natural and exact sciences in general during this period. There are significantly more differences in the forecasts of the future of chemical science, in assessments of the main trends in its development in the near and long term. But here, too, optimism prevails. Everyone agrees that progress will continue at an accelerated pace, although some authors do not expect new fundamental discoveries in chemistry in the near future, comparable in their significance to the discoveries of the beginning and middle of the past century /1/.
There is no doubt that the scientific chemical community has much to be proud of.
Obviously, chemistry in the past century has not only taken a central place in natural science, but also created a new basis for the material culture of modern civilization. It is clear that this vital role will continue in the near future. And therefore, as it seems at first glance, there is no particular reason to doubt the bright future of our science. However, doesn't it confuse you, dear colleagues, by the fact that in the harmonious choir, which today proclaims the praise of chemistry and chemists, there is clearly not enough sobering voices of "counter-winders". In my opinion, counterfeiters make up an important, though not very numerous, part of any healthy scientific community. The "counter-motor skeptic", contrary to common opinion, seeks to extinguish the outbursts of general enthusiasm about the next outstanding successes as much as possible. On the contrary, the “optimist counter-motor” smooths out attacks of equally general despair at the time of the collapse of yet another unfulfilled hopes. Let's try, mentally seating these almost antipodes at one table, to look at the problem of chemistry at the turn of the century from a slightly different point of view.
The age is over. Together with him, a brilliant generation of chemists ends their active life in science, through whose efforts outstanding successes known to all and recognized by all were achieved. A new generation of chemists-researchers, chemists-educators, chemists-engineers is coming to replace them. Who are these young men and women of today, whose faces we see in front of us in classrooms? What and how should we teach them so that their professional activities would be successful? What skills should complement the acquired knowledge? What from our life experience can we pass on to them, and they will agree to accept in the form of advice and instructions, so that the cherished dream of each of them will come true - the dream of personal happiness and well-being? In a short note it is impossible to answer all these complex and eternal questions. Let it be an invitation to a deeper discussion and a seed for leisurely personal reflection.
One of my good friends, a venerable professor of chemistry with forty years of experience, irritably told me recently when, while thinking over this note, I listed the above questions to him: “What actually happened that was special and unexpected? What has changed so much? We all learned little by little from our teachers, learned something and somehow. Now they, students, learn the same from us. And so it goes from century to century. This is how it will always go. And there’s nothing to build a new garden here.” I hope that what I said in response then and what I wrote here will not cause a quarrel between us. But my answer to him sounded very decisive. I argued that everything changed in chemical science at the turn of the century! It is exceptionally difficult to find even a small area in it (of course, we are not talking about back streets in which marginal relics have comfortably settled down) where profound cardinal changes would not have occurred in the last quarter of a century.
^ Methodical Arsenal of Chemical Research.
As S.G. Kara-Murza rightly noted /2/, the history of chemical science can be considered not only within the framework of the traditional approach as the evolution of basic concepts and ideas against the background of discoveries and the accumulation of new experimental facts. It can rightfully be stated in a different context as the history of the improvement and development of the methodological arsenal of chemical science. In fact, the role of new methods is not limited to the fact that they greatly expand the research capabilities of the scientific community that has mastered them. In interdisciplinary interaction, the method is like a Trojan horse. Together with the method, its theoretical and mathematical apparatus penetrate into the new field of science, which are effectively used in the creation of new concepts. The outstripping nature of the development of the methodological arsenal of chemistry was especially clearly manifested precisely in the last quarter of the past century.
Among the most striking achievements in this area, one should certainly include the practical achievement of physical limits in spatial, temporal, and concentration resolution in a number of new methods for chemical research. So the creation of scanning tunneling microscopy with a spatial resolution of 0.1 nm ensures the observation of individual atoms and molecules. The development of laser femtosecond spectroscopy with a time resolution of 1–10 fs opens up possibilities for studying elementary acts of chemical processes in time intervals corresponding to one period of atomic vibrations in a molecule. Finally, the discovery of tunneling vibrational spectroscopy now makes it possible to monitor the behavior and transformations of an individual molecule on the surface of solids. No less important, perhaps, is also the fact that there was practically no time gap between the creation of the physical principles of each of these methods and their direct application to solving chemical problems. The latter is hardly surprising, since all these and many other most important results of recent years have been obtained by teams of an interdisciplinary nature, bringing together physicists, chemists, engineers, and other specialists.
The breakthrough to a new level of resolution and sensitivity was powerfully supported by the exceptionally rapid improvement of those physical methods that have long formed the basis of the research chemist's arsenal. Over the past 10 years, the resolution and sensitivity of all spectral methods have improved by an order of magnitude or more, and the productivity of scientific instruments has increased by two or more orders of magnitude. In leading research laboratories, now the basis of the instrumentation park is 5th generation instruments - the most complex measuring and computing systems that provide full automation of measurements and processing of results, and also make it possible to use databases and banks of scientific data on line in their interpretation. A research chemist using a complex of such devices receives approximately 2000 times more information per unit of time than 50 years ago. Here are just a few examples.
X-ray diffraction analysis of single crystals 10 years ago was one of the most labor-intensive and time-consuming experiments. Determining the molecular and crystal structure of a new substance required months of work, and sometimes dragged on for years. The latest automatic X-ray diffractometers today make it possible, when studying compounds of not too large molecular weight, to obtain the entire necessary array of reflections in a few hours and do not impose too high requirements on the size and quality of the crystal. Complete processing of experimental data using modern programs on a personal computer takes several more hours. Thus, the previously unrealizable dream of "one day - one complete structure" has become an everyday reality. Over the past 20 years, X-ray diffraction analysis has apparently explored more molecular structures than in the entire previous period of its use. In some areas of chemical science, the use of XRD as a routine method has led to a breakthrough to a new level of knowledge. For example, the obtained data on the detailed structure of globular proteins, including the most important enzymes, as well as other types of biologically important molecules, were of fundamental importance for the development of molecular biology, biochemistry, biophysics, and related disciplines. Conducting experiments at low temperatures has opened up the possibility of constructing precision maps of the difference electron density in complex molecules, suitable for direct comparison with the results of theoretical calculations.
Increasing the sensitivity of mass spectrometers already provides reliable analysis of femtogram quantities of a substance. New ionization methods and sufficiently high resolution time-of-flight mass spectrometers (MALDI-TOF systems) in combination with two-dimensional electrophoresis now make it possible to identify and study the structure of very large molecular weight biomolecules, such as cellular proteins. This made possible the emergence of a new rapidly developing area at the intersection of chemistry and biology - proteomics /3/. Modern possibilities of high-resolution mass spectrometry in elemental analysis are well described by G.I. Ramendik /4/.
A new step forward was taken by NMR spectroscopy. The use of magic angle sample rotation methods with cross-polarization makes it possible to obtain high-resolution spectra in solids. The use of complex sequences of RF pulses in combination with pulsed gradients of the polarizing field, as well as inverse detection of the spectra of heavy and rare nuclei, makes it possible to directly determine the three-dimensional structure and dynamics of proteins with a molecular weight of up to 50 kDa in solution.
The increase in the sensitivity of the methods of analysis, separation and study of substances had another important consequence. In all areas of chemistry, miniaturization of chemical experiments has occurred or is taking place, including the transition in chemical laboratory synthesis from a half-micron to a microscale. This significantly reduces the cost of reagents and solvents, significantly speeds up the entire research cycle. Advances in the development of new effective general methods of synthesis, providing typical chemical reactions with high yields close to quantitative, have led to the emergence of "combinatorial chemistry". In it, the goal of synthesis is to obtain not one, but simultaneously hundreds, and sometimes thousands of substances of similar structure (synthesis of a "combinatorial library"), which is carried out in separate microreactors for each product, placed in a large reactor, and sometimes in one common reactor. Such a radical change in the tasks of synthesis led to the development of a completely new strategy for planning and implementing experiments, and also, which is especially important in the light of the problems we are discussing, to a complete renovation of the technique and equipment for its implementation, really putting on the agenda the question of the widespread introduction of chemical robots into practice. .
Finally, the last change in the order of enumeration in this section, but by no means the last change in the methodological arsenal of chemical research, is the new role played in chemistry today by methods of theoretical calculations and computer modeling of the structure and properties of substances, as well as chemical processes. For example, quite recently a theoretical chemist saw his main task in systematizing known experimental facts and in constructing theoretical concepts of a qualitative nature based on their analysis. The unprecedented rapid growth in the capabilities of computer technology has led to the fact that high-level quantum chemistry methods that provide reliable quantitative information have become a real tool for studying complex molecular and supramolecular structures, including hundreds of atoms, including atoms of heavy elements. In this regard, ab initio calculations of the LCAO MO SSP with correlation and relativistic corrections, as well as quantum chemical calculations using the density functional method in nonlocal approximations in extended and split bases, can now be used at the initial stages of the study, preceding the execution of a synthetic experiment, which becomes much more purposeful. Such calculations are easily handled by undergraduate and graduate students. Very characteristic changes are taking place in the composition of the best scientific teams conducting experimental research. Theoretical chemists are increasingly organically included in them. In high-level scientific publications, descriptions of new chemical objects or phenomena are often given along with their detailed theoretical analysis. The remarkable possibilities of computer simulation of the kinetics of complex multi-route catalytic processes and the amazing successes achieved in this area are well described in the article by ON Temkin /5/.
Even a very short and far from complete list of the main changes in the methodological arsenal of chemistry at the turn of the century, given above, allows us to draw a number of important and quite definite conclusions:
these changes are of a cardinal, fundamental nature;
the pace of mastering new methods and techniques in chemistry in recent decades has been and remains very high;
A new methodological arsenal has created the possibility of posing and successfully solving chemical problems of unprecedented complexity in an exceptionally short time frame.
It is appropriate, in my opinion, to assert that during this period chemical research turned into a field of large-scale application of a whole complex of new and latest high technologies associated with the use of sophisticated equipment. Obviously, the development of these technologies is becoming one of the most important tasks in training a new generation of chemists.
^ 2. Information support of chemical science and new information and communication technologies.
The time of doubling the amount of scientific chemical information, according to the latest estimates by IV Melikhov /6/, is now 11-12 years. The number of scientific journals and their volumes, the number of published monographs and reviews is rapidly growing. Research in each of the relevant scientific areas is simultaneously carried out in dozens of research teams in different countries. Free access to sources of scientific information, which has always been a necessary condition for productive scientific work, as well as the ability to quickly exchange current information with colleagues in the new conditions of full internationalization of science, have become limiting factors that determine not only the success, but also the feasibility of any scientific project. Without constant operational communication with the core of the scientific community, the researcher now quickly becomes marginalized even if he receives high quality results. This situation is especially typical for that significant part of Russian chemists who do not have access to the INTERNET and rarely publish in international chemical journals. Their results become known to members of the international community with a time delay of several months, and sometimes do not attract attention at all, being published in hard-to-reach and low-authority publications, which, unfortunately, still include most Russian chemical journals. Zapodada, albeit valuable information has almost no effect on the course of the global research process, and therefore the main meaning of all scientific work is lost. In the context of the poverty of our libraries, INTERNET has become the main source of scientific information, and e-mail has become the main channel of communication. We must once again bow low to George Soros, who was the first to allocate funds for connecting our universities and research institutes to the INTERNET. Unfortunately, not all scientific teams have access to electronic communication channels, and it will probably take at least a decade before INTERNET becomes publicly available.
Today, our Russian scientific chemical community has split into two unequal parts. A significant, probably most of the researchers are experiencing an acute information hunger, not having free access to information sources. This is keenly felt, for example, by RFBR experts who have to review initiative scientific projects. In the 2000 chemical project competition, for example, according to some of the authoritative experts who participated in their evaluation, up to a third of the project authors did not have the most up-to-date information on their proposed topic. As a result, the programs of work they proposed were suboptimal. The delay in the processing of scientific information for them, according to tentative estimates, could be from one and a half to two years. Moreover, there were also projects aimed at solving problems that had either already been solved or, in the light of the results obtained in related fields, had lost their relevance. Their authors, apparently, did not have access to modern information for at least 4-5 years.
The second part of chemical scientists, to which I include myself, is experiencing difficulties of a different kind. It is in a state of constant information overload. Huge amounts of information are simply overwhelmed. Here is the most recent example from personal practice. In preparing a key publication in a new series of scientific papers, I decided to carefully collect and analyze all relevant literature. Machine search on three databases by keywords over the past 5 years revealed 677 sources with a total volume of 5489 pages. The introduction of additional stricter selection criteria reduced the number of sources to 235. Working with the abstracts of these scientific articles made it possible to weed out another 47 not very significant publications. Of the remaining 188 papers, I previously knew and had already studied 143. Of the 45 new sources, 34 turned out to be available for direct viewing. from other positions. The movement along the scientific references to the origins eventually revealed 55 more sources. A cursory glance at the two reviews that were among them led me to add 27 more papers from related fields to the list for study. Of these, 17 were already on the original list of 677 sources. Thus, after three months of very hard work, I had a list of 270 papers directly related to the problem. Among them, the high quality of publications of 6 scientific groups clearly stood out. I wrote to the leaders of these teams about my main results and asked them to send links to their latest work on the problem. Two replied that they no longer deal with it and have not published anything new. Three of them sent 14 papers, some of which had just been completed and were not yet out of print. One of the colleagues did not respond to the request. Two of the colleagues in their letters mentioned the name of a young Japanese scientist who started research in the same direction only two years ago, had only 2 publications on the topic, but made, according to their reviews, a brilliant scientific report at the last international conference. I immediately wrote to him and received in response a list of 11 publications that used the same research method that I used, but with some additional modifications. He also drew my attention to some inaccuracies in the text of my letter when presenting his own results. Having worked out in detail only 203 works out of 295 directly related to the topic, I am finally finishing the preparation of the publication. There are more than 100 titles in the bibliography, which is completely unacceptable according to the rules of our journals. The collection and processing of information took almost 10 months. From this rather typical story, in my opinion, four important conclusions follow:
A modern chemist must spend up to half or more of his working time on the collection and analysis of information on the profile of research, which is two or three times more than half a century ago.
Fast operational communication with colleagues working in the same field in different countries of the world, i.e. inclusion in the "invisible scientific team" dramatically increases the effectiveness of such work.
An important task in training a new generation of chemists is the mastery of modern information technologies.
Of exceptional importance is the language training of the young generation of specialists.
Therefore, in our laboratory, we hold some colloquia in English, even if there are no foreign guests at them, which are not uncommon for us. Last year the students of my specialized group, having learned that I had lectured abroad, asked me to read part of the organic chemistry course in English. The experience, in general, seemed interesting and successful to me. About half of the students not only mastered the material well, but also actively participated in the discussion, lecture attendance increased. However, about a quarter of the students from the group, who had difficulty mastering complex material even in Russian, clearly did not like this idea.
I also note that the situation I have described allows us to understand in a real light the origin of the well-known thesis about the dishonesty and treachery of some of our foreign colleagues who do not actively cite the works of Russian chemists, allegedly in order to assign themselves someone else's priority. The real reason is severe information overload. It is clear that it is impossible to collect, read and quote all the necessary works. Of course, I always cite the work of those with whom I constantly collaborate, exchange information, and discuss the results before they are published. Sometimes, when my work was overlooked, I had to send polite letters to colleagues asking them to correct the oversight. And she always corrected herself, although without much pleasure. In turn, I once had to apologize for carelessness.
^ 3. New goals and new structure of the chemical research front.
A.L. Buchachenko brilliantly wrote about new goals and new trends in the development of chemistry at the turn of the century in his review /7/, and I will confine myself to a short commentary. The trend towards the integration of individual chemical disciplines, which has dominated over the past two decades, indicates that chemical science has reached that degree of "golden maturity" when the already available funds and resources are sufficient to solve the traditional problems of each of the areas. A striking example is modern organic chemistry. Today, the synthesis of an organic molecule of any complexity can be carried out using already developed methods. Therefore, even very complex problems of this type can be considered as purely technical problems. The foregoing, of course, does not mean that the development of new methods of organic synthesis should be stopped. Works of this type will always be relevant, but at the new stage they constitute not the main, but the background direction of the development of the discipline. In /7/, eight general directions of modern chemical science are identified (chemical synthesis; chemical structure and function; control of chemical processes; chemical materials science; chemical technology; chemical analytics and diagnostics; chemistry of life). In real scientific activity, in each scientific project, to one degree or another, particular tasks are always set and resolved, related to several general areas at once. And this, in turn, requires very versatile training from each member of the scientific team.
It is also important to note that in each of the above areas of chemistry, there is a clear transition to more and more complex objects of study. Supramolecular systems and structures are increasingly in the center of attention. A new stage in the development of chemical science, which began at the turn of the century, can therefore be called the stage of supramolecular chemistry.
^ 4. Features of Russian chemical science today.
Ten years of so-called perestroika dealt a terrible blow to Russian science in general and to Russian chemistry in particular. Much has been written about this, and it is not worth repeating here. Unfortunately, we have to state that among the scientific teams that have proved their viability in the new conditions, there are practically no former branch chemical institutes. The huge potential of this industry is practically destroyed, and material and intellectual values are plundered. Beggarly financing of academic and university chemistry, during this entire period limited to wages at or below the subsistence level, led to a significant reduction in the number of employees. Most of the energetic and talented youth left universities and institutes. The average age of teachers in the vast majority of universities has crossed the critical mark of 60 years. There is a generational gap - among the employees of chemical institutes and teachers there are very few people in the most productive age of 30-40 years. There are old professors and young graduate students who often enter graduate school with only one goal - to be released from military service.
Most research teams can be attributed to one of two types, although this division, of course, is very arbitrary. "Producing scientific teams" carry out new large independent research projects and receive significant amounts of primary information. "Expert research teams" are usually smaller in number than the producing ones, but they also have very highly qualified specialists in their composition. They are focused on the analysis of information flows, on the generalization and systematization of the results obtained in other scientific teams of the world. Accordingly, their scientific products are mainly reviews and monographs. Due to the enormous growth in the volume of scientific information, this kind of work becomes very important if it is carried out in compliance with the requirements that apply to such secondary sources of information as a review and a monograph / 8 /. Under conditions of beggarly funding, a lack of modern scientific equipment, and a downsizing in the Russian scientific chemical community, the number of producing teams has decreased, while the number of expert teams has slightly increased. In the work of most teams of both types, the share of complex experimental studies has fallen. Such changes in the structure of the scientific community under unfavorable conditions are quite natural and reversible at a certain stage. If the situation improves, the expert team can easily be replenished with young people and turned into a productive one. However, if the period of unfavorable conditions drags on, expert teams perish, because the leaders in them are older scientists who stop their scientific activity for natural reasons.
The share of works by Russian chemists in the total volume of research and in the world's information flows is rapidly declining. Our country can no longer consider itself a "great chemical power". For some ten years, due to the departure of leaders and the absence of an equivalent replacement, we have already lost a significant number of scientific schools that were the pride of not only our, but also world science. Apparently, in the near future we will continue to lose them. In my opinion, Russian chemical science today has reached a critical point, beyond which the disintegration of the community becomes an avalanche-like and more uncontrollable process.
This danger is quite clearly recognized by the international scientific community, which seeks to provide our science with all possible assistance through various channels. I have the impression that the people in power in our science and education have not yet fully realized the reality of such a collapse. Indeed, one cannot seriously count on the fact that it can be prevented by implementing a program to support scientific schools through the Russian Foundation for Basic Research and the "Integration" program. It is not realized that the funds allocated for these programs are significantly (according to rough estimates, by an order of magnitude) lower than the minimum limit, after reaching which the effect of the impact becomes different from zero.
In response to a statement in this tone in a conversation with a person close to the power structures indicated above, I heard: “Do not boil in vain, read“ Search ”. Thank God the worst times are behind us. Of course, the general background is still rather bleak, but there are quite prosperous research teams and entire institutes that have adapted to the new conditions and demonstrate a noticeable increase in productivity. So there is no need to fall into hysterics and bury our science.”
In fact, such groups exist. I made a list of ten such laboratories, working close to the field of my scientific interests, climbed into INTERNET, worked in the library with the Chemical Abstracts database. Here are the immediately striking common features inherent in these laboratories:
All ten collectives have direct access to the INTERNET, five out of ten have their own well-designed pages with fairly complete and up-to-date information about their work.
All ten laboratories actively cooperate with foreign teams. Six have grants from international organizations, three carry out research under contracts with large foreign firms.
More than half of the members of the research teams, information about which was found, traveled abroad at least once a year to participate in international conferences or for scientific work.
The work of nine out of ten laboratories is supported by RFBR grants (an average of 2 grants per laboratory).
Six out of 10 laboratories represent institutes of the Russian Academy of Sciences, but three of them are very actively involved in cooperation with the Higher Chemical College of the Russian Academy of Sciences, and therefore there are quite a lot of students in their teams. Of the four university teams, three are headed by members of the Russian Academy of Sciences.
From 15% to 35% of scientific publications of laboratory managers over the past 5 years have been published in international journals. During this period, five of them published joint papers, and seven presented joint reports at scientific conferences with foreign colleagues.
In conclusion, I will say the most important thing - absolutely remarkable personalities are at the head of all these laboratories. Highly cultured, diversified people who are passionate about their work.
A qualified reader will immediately notice that it makes no sense to draw any conclusions of a general nature on the basis of such a small and unrepresentative sample of scientific teams. I confess that I do not have complete data on other successfully working scientific teams of chemists in the country. It would be interesting to collect and analyze them. But from the experience of my laboratory, which is not the weakest in general, I can responsibly declare that without participation in international cooperation, without constant help from foreign colleagues, from whom we received almost $ 4,000 worth of chemical reagents and books over the past year, without constant business trips of employees, graduate students and students abroad, we would not be able to work at all. The conclusion suggests itself:
Today, in the field of fundamental research in our chemical science, mainly teams that are included in the international scientific community are working productively, receive support from abroad, and have free access to sources of scientific information. The integration of the Russian chemistry that survived the restructuring into the world chemical science is coming to an end.
And if so, then our criteria for the quality of scientific products must meet the highest international standards. Almost deprived of the opportunity to acquire modern scientific equipment, we must focus on using the very limited facilities of the centers for collective use and / or on performing the most complex and subtle experiments abroad.
^ 5. Let's return to the problem of preparing our shift.
A lot on this subject is well said in the article by the deans of the Chemistry departments of the two indisputably best universities in the country / 9 /, and therefore it is not necessary to go into many details. Let's try to move in order in accordance with the list of questions formulated at the beginning of this note.
So who are they, the young people sitting on the student bench in front of us? Fortunately, there is a small proportion of individuals in the human population who are genetically predetermined to become scientists. You just need to find them and involve them in chemistry classes. Fortunately, there are long and glorious traditions in our country of identifying talented children through chemistry olympiads, through the creation of specialized classes and schools. Remarkable enthusiasts of classes with gifted schoolchildren still live and actively work. Leading chemical universities, which take the most active part in this work, despite the intrigues of the Ministry of Education, are truly harvesting the golden harvest. Up to a third of the students of the Faculty of Chemistry of Moscow State University in recent years, already in the 1st year, determine the area of their interests, and almost half begin scientific work by the beginning of the 3rd year.
The peculiarity of the new time is that, starting to study at the university, a young person often does not yet know in which area he will have to work after completing his education. Most researchers and engineers have to change fields of activity several times during their professional career. Therefore, the future specialist on the student bench must acquire solid skills in the ability to independently master new areas of science. Independent individual work of the student is the basis of modern education. The main condition for the effectiveness of such work is the availability of good modern textbooks and teaching aids. The "lifetime" of a modern textbook, apparently, should be approximately equal to the time of doubling the volume of scientific information, i.e. should be 11-12 years old. One of the main troubles of our education is that we not only do not have new high school textbooks on basic chemical disciplines, but even the old ones are sorely lacking. An effective program of writing and printing textbooks in chemical disciplines for universities is needed.
Gifted and well-motivated students have a peculiarity that R. Feiman noticed in his famous lectures. They, such students, essentially do not need a standard education. They need an environment
Chemical and chemical-technological education, a system of mastering knowledge in chemistry and chemical technology in educational institutions, ways of applying them to solving engineering, technological and research problems. It is divided into general chemical education, which provides mastery of knowledge of the basics of chemical science, and special chemical education, which equips with the knowledge of chemistry and chemical technology, necessary for specialists of higher and secondary qualifications for production activities, research and teaching work both in the field of chemistry and related with it branches of science and technology. General chemical education is given in secondary general education schools, secondary vocational and secondary specialized educational institutions. Special chemical and chemical-technological education is acquired in various higher and secondary specialized educational institutions (universities, institutes, technical schools, colleges). Its tasks, volume and content depend on the profile of training specialists in them (chemical, mining, food, pharmaceutical, metallurgical industries, agriculture, medicine, heat power engineering, etc.). The content of chemical and varies depending on the development of chemistry and production requirements.
The improvement of the structure and content of chemical and chemical-technological education is associated with the scientific and pedagogical activities of many Soviet scientists - A.. E. Arbuzov, B. A. Arbuzov, A. N. Bakh, S. I. Volfkovich, N. D. Zelinsky A E. Poray-Koshitsa, A. N. Reformatsky, S. N. Reformatsky, N. N. Semenov, Ya. K. Syrkin, V. E. Tishchenko, A. E. Favorsky and others. in special chemical journals helping to improve the scientific level of courses in chemistry and chemical technology in higher education. The journal "Chemistry at School" is published for teachers.
In other socialist countries, the training of specialists with a chemical and chemical-technological education is carried out at universities and specialized colleges. Large centers of such education are: in the NRB - Sofia University, Sofia; in Hungary - the University of Budapest, Veszpremsky; in the GDR - Berlin, Dresden technical, Rostock universities, Magdeburg Higher Technical School; in Poland - Warsaw, Lodz, Lublin universities, Warsaw Polytechnic Institute; in the SRR - Bucharest, Cluj Universities, Bucharest, Iasi Polytechnic Institutes; in Czechoslovakia - Prague University, Prague, Pardubice Higher School of Chemical Technology; in the SFRY - Zagreb, Sarajevo, Split universities, etc.
In the capitalist countries, major centers of chemical and chemical-technological education are: in Great Britain, the universities of Cambridge, Oxford, Bath, Birmingham, and the Manchester Polytechnic Institute; in Italy - Bologna, Milan universities; in the USA - California, Columbia, Michigan Technological Universities, University of Toledo, California, Massachusetts Institutes of Technology; in France - Grenoble 1st, Marseilles 1st, Clermont-Ferrand, Compiegne Technological, Lyons 1st, Montpellier 2nd, Paris 6th and 7th universities, Laurent, Toulouse Polytechnic Institutes; in Germany - Dortmund, Hannover, Stuttgart universities, Higher technical schools in Darmstadt and Karlsruhe; in Japan - Kyoto, Okayama, Osaka, Tokyo universities, etc.
Lit .: Figurovsky N. A., Bykov G. V., Komarova T. A., Chemistry at Moscow University for 200 years, M., 1955; History of chemical sciences, M., 1958; Remennikov B. M., Ushakov G. I., University education in the USSR, M., 1960; Zinoviev S. I., Remennikov B. M., Higher educational institutions of the USSR, [M.], 1962; Parmenov K. Ya., Chemistry as an academic subject in pre-revolutionary and Soviet schools, M., 1963; Teaching chemistry in a new curriculum in high school. [Sat. Art.], M., 1974; Joua M., History of Chemistry, trans. from Italian, M., 1975.
Address: St. Petersburg, emb. R. Moiki, d.48
E-mail of the Organizing Committee: [email protected]
Organizers: Russian State Pedagogical University im. A.I. Herzen
Conditions of participation and housing: 400 rubles.
Dear Colleagues!
We invite you to take part inII All-Russian student conference with international participation "Chemistry and Chemical Education XXI century”, dedicated to the 50th anniversary of the Faculty of Chemistry of the Russian State Pedagogical University. A.I. Herzen and the 100th anniversary of the birth of Professor V.V. perekalina.
The conference will be held on the basis of the Russian State Pedagogical University. A.I. Herzen.
Dates of the conference - from 15 to 17 April 2013 The purpose of the conference is to exchange the results of studying modern problems of chemistry and chemical education between young researchers and to actively involve students in research work. The conference will present sectional(up to 10 min) and poster presentations by studentsundergraduate students, cn ecialite and magistracy. It is possible to participate in absentia with the publication of the abstracts of the report. The abstracts of the reports selected by the Organizing Committee will be published in the collection of conference materials with the assignment of the ISBN number. Plenary presentations will be made by invited leading chemists of St. Petersburg.
The main scientific directions of the conference:
- Section 1 - organic, biological and pharmaceutical chemistry
- Section 2 - physical, analytical and environmental chemistry
- Section 3 - inorganic and coordination chemistry, nanotechnologies
- Section 4 - chemical education
To participate in the conference you need:
Before February 15, 2013, send the registration form of the participant and abstracts of the report, drawn up in accordance with the requirements, to the conference e-mail address: conference [email protected]
A chemical element is a collection of atoms with the same charge. How are simple and complex chemical elements formed?
Chemical element
All the diversity of nature around us consists of combinations of a relatively small number of chemical elements.
In different historical epochs, different meanings were put into the concept of “element”. Ancient Greek philosophers considered four "elements" as "elements" - heat, cold, dryness and humidity. Combining in pairs, they formed the four "origins" of all things - fire, air, water and earth. In the middle of the century, salt, sulfur and mercury were added to these principles. In the 18th century, R. Boyle pointed out that all elements are of a material nature and their number can be quite large.
In 1787, the French chemist A. Lavoisier created the "Table of Simple Bodies". It included all the elements known by that time. The latter were understood as simple bodies that could not be decomposed by chemical methods into even simpler ones. Subsequently, it turned out that some complex substances were included in the table.
Rice. 1. A. Lavoisier.
At present, the concept of "chemical element" is established precisely. An element is a type of atom with the same positive nuclear charge. The latter is equal to the serial number of the element in the periodic table.
Currently, 118 elements are known. Approximately 90 of them exist in nature. The rest are obtained artificially using nuclear reactions.
104-107 elements were synthesized by physicists. Currently, research continues on the artificial production of chemical elements with higher serial numbers.
All elements are divided into metals and non-metals. Non-metals include such elements as: helium, neon, argon, krypton, fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, astatine, oxygen, sulfur, selenium, nitrogen, telurium, phosphorus, arsenic, silicon, boron, hydrogen. However, the division into metals and non-metals is conditional. Under certain conditions, some metals can acquire non-metallic properties, and some non-metals can acquire metallic properties.
The formation of chemical elements and substances
Chemical elements can exist in the form of single atoms, in the form of single free ions, but usually they are part of simple and complex substances.
Rice. 2. Schemes of the formation of chemical elements.
Simple substances consist of atoms of the same type and are formed as a result of the combination of atoms into molecules and crystals. Most of the chemical elements are metallic, because the simple substances formed by them are metals. Metals have common physical properties: they are all solid (except mercury), opaque, have a metallic luster, thermal and electrical conductivity, malleability. Metals form such chemical elements as, for example, magnesium, calcium, iron, copper.
Non-metallic elements form simple substances related to non-metals. They do not have characteristic metallic properties, they are gases (oxygen, nitrogen), liquids (bromine), and solids (sulfur, iodine).
One and the same element can form several different simple substances with different physical and chemical properties. They are called allotropic forms, and the phenomenon of their existence is called allotropy. Examples are diamond, graphite, and carbine, simple substances that are allotropic forms of the element carbon.
Rice. 3. Diamond, graphite, carbine.
Compounds are made up of atoms of different types of elements. For example, iron sulfide is composed of atoms of the chemical element iron and the chemical element sulfur. At the same time, a complex substance in no way retains the properties of simple substances of iron and sulfur: they are not there, but there are atoms of the corresponding elements.
What have we learned?
Currently, 118 chemical elements are known, which are divided into metals and non-metals. All elements can be divided into simple and complex substances. the first are made up of atoms of the same kind, and the second are made up of atoms of different kinds.
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