Many have heard about Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev and about the “Periodic law of change in the properties of chemical elements by groups and series” discovered by him in the 19th century (1869) (the author’s name for the table is “The Periodic Table of Elements by Groups and Series”).
The discovery of the table of periodic chemical elements was one of the important milestones in the history of the development of chemistry as a science. The pioneer of the table was the Russian scientist Dmitry Mendeleev. An extraordinary scientist with the broadest scientific horizons managed to combine all ideas about the nature of chemical elements into a single coherent concept.
Table opening history
By the middle of the 19th century, 63 chemical elements had been discovered, and scientists around the world have repeatedly attempted to combine all the existing elements into a single concept. The elements were proposed to be placed in ascending order of atomic mass and divided into groups according to the similarity of chemical properties.
In 1863, the chemist and musician John Alexander Newland proposed his theory, who proposed a layout of chemical elements similar to that discovered by Mendeleev, but the work of the scientist was not taken seriously by the scientific community due to the fact that the author was carried away by the search for harmony and the connection of music with chemistry.
In 1869, Mendeleev published his scheme of the periodic table in the journal of the Russian Chemical Society and sent out a notice of the discovery to the leading scientists of the world. In the future, the chemist repeatedly refined and improved the scheme until it acquired its familiar form.
The essence of Mendeleev's discovery is that with an increase in the atomic mass, the chemical properties of elements do not change monotonously, but periodically. After a certain number of elements with different properties, the properties begin to repeat. Thus, potassium is similar to sodium, fluorine is similar to chlorine, and gold is similar to silver and copper.
In 1871, Mendeleev finally united the ideas into the Periodic Law. Scientists predicted the discovery of several new chemical elements and described their chemical properties. Subsequently, the chemist's calculations were fully confirmed - gallium, scandium and germanium fully corresponded to the properties that Mendeleev attributed to them.
But not everything is so simple and there is something we do not know.
Few people know that D. I. Mendeleev was one of the first world-famous Russian scientists of the late 19th century, who defended in world science the idea of ether as a universal substantial entity, who gave it fundamental scientific and applied significance in revealing the secrets of Being and to improve the economic life of the people.
There is an opinion that the periodic table of chemical elements officially taught in schools and universities is a fake. Mendeleev himself in his work entitled "An attempt at a chemical understanding of the world ether" gave a slightly different table.
The last time, in an undistorted form, the real Periodic Table saw the light in 1906 in St. Petersburg (textbook "Fundamentals of Chemistry", VIII edition).
The differences are visible: the zero group is moved to the 8th, and the element lighter than hydrogen, with which the table should begin and which is conventionally called Newtonium (ether), is generally excluded.
The same table is immortalized by the "BLOODY TYRANT" comrade. Stalin in St. Petersburg, Moskovsky Ave. 19. VNIIM them. D. I. Mendeleeva (All-Russian Research Institute of Metrology)
The monument-table The Periodic Table of Chemical Elements of D. I. Mendeleev was made with mosaics under the guidance of Professor of the Academy of Arts V. A. Frolov (architectural design of Krichevsky). The monument is based on a table from the last lifetime 8th edition (1906) of D. I. Mendeleev’s Fundamentals of Chemistry. Elements discovered during the life of D. I. Mendeleev are marked in red. Elements discovered from 1907 to 1934 , are marked in blue.
Why and how did it happen that we are so brazenly and openly lied to?
Place and role of the world ether in the true table of D. I. Mendeleev
Many people have heard about Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev and about the “Periodic law of changes in the properties of chemical elements by groups and series” discovered by him in the 19th century (1869) (the author’s name for the table is “The Periodic Table of Elements by Groups and Series”).
Many also heard that D.I. Mendeleev was the organizer and permanent leader (1869-1905) of the Russian public scientific association called the Russian Chemical Society (since 1872 - the Russian Physico-Chemical Society), which published the world-famous journal ZhRFKhO throughout its existence, right up to until the liquidation by the Academy of Sciences of the USSR in 1930 - both the Society and its journal.
But few of those who know that D. I. Mendeleev was one of the last world-famous Russian scientists of the late 19th century, who defended in world science the idea of ether as a universal substantial entity, who gave it fundamental scientific and applied significance in revealing secrets Being and to improve the economic life of people.
Even fewer of those who know that after the sudden (!!?) death of D. I. Mendeleev (01.27.1907), who was then recognized as an outstanding scientist by all scientific communities around the world except for the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences alone, his main discovery is “Periodic law” was deliberately and everywhere falsified by world academic science.
And there are very few who know that all of the above is linked together by the thread of sacrificial service of the best representatives and bearers of the immortal Russian Physical Thought for the good of the peoples, for public benefit, despite the growing wave of irresponsibility in the upper strata of society of that time.
In essence, this dissertation is devoted to the comprehensive development of the last thesis, because in true science any neglect of essential factors always leads to false results.
The elements of the zero group begin each row of other elements, located on the left side of the Table, “... which is a strictly logical consequence of understanding the periodic law” - Mendeleev.
Particularly important and even exceptional in the sense of the periodic law, the place belongs to the element "x", - "Newtonius", - the world ether. And this special element should be located at the very beginning of the entire Table, in the so-called “zero group of the zero row”. Moreover, being a system-forming element (more precisely, a system-forming entity) of all elements of the Periodic Table, the world ether is a substantive argument for the entire variety of elements of the Periodic Table. The Table itself, in this regard, acts as a closed functional of this very argument.
Sources:
Fundamentals of Chemistry D. Mendeleev, Professor of the Imperial St. Petersburg. University. Ch.1-2. St. Petersburg, printing house of Comrade "Public Benefit", 1869-71.
Part one: 4[n.n.], III, 1[n.n.], 816 pp., 151 polytypes. SPb., 1869. Mr. Nikitin stenographically wrote down almost the entire first part of the work from the words of the author. Most of the drawings were cut by Mr. Udgof. The proofreaders were Messrs. Ditlov, Bogdanovich and Pestrechenko. The first part contains the so-called small table "Experience with a system of elements based on their atomic weight and chemical similarity" with 66 elements!
Part two: 4[n.s.], 1[n.s.], 951 pp., 1[n.s.], 28 polytypes. SPb., 1871. Messrs. Verigo, Marcuse, Kikin and Leontiev took shorthand of the second part of the work. The drawings were cut by Mr. Ugdof. Almost the entire volume was proofread by Mr. Demin. The second part contains a folding Natural system of elements by D. Mendeleev and an Index of elements. True, the number of elements has increased to 96, 36 of which are vacant (they will be found and received later). In black p / c bindings of that time with gold stamping on the spines. The owner's A.Sh. is embossed at the bottom. Good condition. Format: 18x12 cm. D.I. Mendeleev: "Dear friend ... the author."
Everyone knows about the existence of the Periodic system and the Periodic law of chemical elements, the author of which is the great Russian chemist D.I. Mendeleev. In 1867, Mendeleev took the chair of inorganic (general) chemistry of the Imperial St. Petersburg. university as an ordinary professor. In 1868, Mendeleev began work on the Fundamentals of Chemistry. While working on this course, he discovered the periodic law of chemical elements. According to legend, on February 17, 1869, after a long reading, he suddenly fell asleep on his sofa in his office and dreamed of a periodic system of elements ... Dmitry Ivanovich published the first version of the table of chemical elements expressing the periodic law in the form of a separate sheet entitled "Experiment of the system of elements based on their atomic weight and chemical similarity” and sent this leaflet in March 1869 to many Russian and foreign chemists. The report on the relationship discovered by Mendeleev between the properties of elements and their atomic weights was made on March 6 (18), 1869 at a meeting of the Russian Chemical Society (N.A. Menshutkin on behalf of Mendeleev) and published in the Journal of the Russian Chemical Society (Relationship of properties with atomic weight of elements”), 1869. In the summer of 1871, Dmitry Ivanovich summed up his research related to the establishment of the periodic law in the work “Periodic law for chemical elements”. In 1869, no person in the world thought more about the classification of chemical elements than Mendeleev, and perhaps no chemist knew more about chemical elements than he did. He knew that the similarity of crystalline forms, which manifests itself in isomorphism, is not always a sufficient basis for judging the similarity of elements. He knew that specific volumes did not provide a clear guiding principle for classification either. He knew that, in general, the study of cohesion, heat capacities, densities, refractive indices, and spectral phenomena had not yet reached a level that would make it possible to put these properties at the basis of a scientific classification of elements. But he also knew something else - that such a classification, such a system must necessarily exist. It was guessed, many scientists tried to decipher it, and Dmitry Ivanovich, who closely followed the work in the area of interest to him, could not help but know about these attempts. The fact that some elements show features of a completely obvious similarity was not a secret for any chemist of those years. The similarities between lithium, sodium and potassium, between chlorine, bromine and iodine, or between calcium, strontium and barium, were striking to anyone. And the interesting ratios of the atomic weights of such similar elements did not escape Dumas's attention. Thus, the atomic weight of sodium is equal to half the sum of the weights of lithium and potassium adjacent to it. The same can be said about strontium and its neighbors calcium and barium. Moreover, Dumas discovered such strange digital analogies in similar elements, which brought to mind the attempts of the Pythagoreans to find the essence of the world in numbers and their combinations. Indeed, the atomic weight of lithium is 7, sodium - 7 + (1 x 16) = 23, potassium - 7 + (2 x 16) = 39! In 1853, the English chemist J. Gladstone drew attention to the fact that elements with close atomic weights are similar in chemical properties: these are platinum, rhodium, iridium, osmium, palladium and ruthenium or iron, cobalt, nickel. Four years later, the Swede Lensep united several "triads" by chemical similarity: ruthenium - rhodium - palladium; osmium - platinum - iridium; manganese - iron - cobalt. The German M. Pettenkofer noted the special significance of the numbers 8 and 18, since the differences between the atomic weights of similar elements were often close to 8 and 18 or multiples of them. Even attempts have been made to compile tables of elements. In the library of Mendeleev, a book by the German chemist L. Gmelin was preserved, in which such a table was published in 1843. In 1857, the English chemist W. Odling proposed his own version. But ... “All the observed relationships in atomic weights of analogues,” wrote Dmitry Ivanovich, “have not, however, so far led to any logical consequence, they have not even received the right to citizenship in science due to many shortcomings. Firstly, as far as I know, not a single generalization connecting all known natural groups into one whole appeared, and therefore the conclusions made for some groups suffered from fragmentary and did not lead to any further logical conclusions, seemed necessary and unexpected phenomenon ... Secondly, such facts were noticed ... where similar elements had close atomic weights. As a result, therefore, it could only be said that the similarity of the elements is connected sometimes with the proximity of atomic weights, and sometimes with a regular increase in their magnitude. Thirdly, between dissimilar elements, they did not even look for any exact and simple ratios in atomic weights ... ”The Mendeleev Library still holds the book of the German chemist A. Strecker“ Theories and Experiments for Determining the Atomic Weights of Elements ”, which Dmitry Ivanovich brought back from his first business trip abroad. And he read it carefully. This is evidenced by numerous notes in the margins, this is evidenced by the phrase noted by Dmitry Ivanovich:
between the given numbers. These words were written in 1859, and exactly ten years later it was time for the discovery of this pattern. “I was repeatedly asked,” recalls Mendeleev, “on the basis of what, based on what thought, was I found and stubbornly defend the periodic law? .. My personal thought at all times ... stopped at the fact that matter, force and spirit we are powerless to understand in their essence or in separateness that we can study them in manifestations where they are inevitably combined, and that in addition to their inherent eternity, they have their own - comprehensible - common original signs or properties, which should be studied in every way . Having devoted my energies to the study of matter, I see in it two such signs or properties: mass,
occupying space and manifesting ... clearest or most real in weight, and individuality ,
expressed in chemical transformations, and most clearly in the concept of chemical elements. When you think about matter... it is impossible, for me, to avoid two questions: how much and what kind of substance is given, to which the concepts of mass and chemical elements correspond... Therefore, the idea involuntarily arises that there must be a connection between mass and chemical elements. , and since the mass of matter ... is finally expressed in the form of atoms, it is necessary to look for a functional correspondence between the individual properties of the elements and their atomic weights ... So I began to select, writing on separate cards the elements with their atomic weights and fundamental properties, similar elements and close atomic weights, which quickly led to the conclusion that the properties of the elements are in a periodic dependence on their atomic weight ... ”In this description, everything looks very simple, but in order to even remotely imagine all the incredible difficulty of what was done, one must understand what lies behind the somewhat vague concept of "individuality, expressed in chemical transformations." In fact, atomic weight is an understandable and easily expressed quantity in numbers. But how, in what numbers, can one express the ability of an element to chemical reactions? Now a person who is familiar with chemistry, at least in the volume of high school, can easily answer this question: the ability of an element to give certain types of chemical compounds is determined by its valency. But today it is easy to say this only because it was the periodic system that contributed to the development of the modern idea of \u200b\u200bvalence. As we have already said, the concept of valence (Mendeleev called it atomicity) was introduced into chemistry by Frankland, who noticed that an atom of one or another element can bind a certain number of atoms of other elements. Let's say a chlorine atom can bond one hydrogen atom, so both of these elements are monovalent. Oxygen in a water molecule binds two monovalent hydrogen atoms, therefore, oxygen is divalent. In ammonia, there are three hydrogen atoms per nitrogen atom, so nitrogen is trivalent in this compound. Finally, in a methane molecule, one carbon atom holds four hydrogen atoms. The tetravalence of carbon is also confirmed by the fact that in carbon dioxide, in full accordance with the theory of valence, the carbon atom holds two divalent oxygen atoms. The establishment of the tetravalence of carbon played such an important role in the development of organic chemistry, clarified so many confusing issues in this science that the German chemist Kekule (the same one who invented the benzene ring) stated: the valency of an element is as constant as its atomic weight. If this belief were true, the task facing Mendeleev would be simplified to the extreme: he would simply have to compare the valency of the elements with their atomic weight. But that was the whole difficulty, that Kekule was overwhelmed. This interception, necessary and important for organic chemistry, was obvious to every chemist. Even carbon and that one in the carbon monoxide molecule bound only one oxygen atom and was, therefore, not tetra-, but divalent. Nitrogen gave a whole range of compounds: M 2 O, N0, M 2 O 3, MO 2, N2O5, in which he was in one-, two-, three-, four- and pentavalent states. In addition, there was another strange circumstance: chlorine, which combines with one hydrogen atom, should be considered a monovalent element. Sodium, two atoms of which are combined with one atom of divalent oxygen, should also be considered monovalent. It turns out that the monovalent group includes elements that not only have nothing in common with each other, but are downright chemical antipodes. In order to somehow distinguish such equally valent, but little similar elements, chemists were forced in each case to make a reservation: monovalent in hydrogen or monovalent in oxygen. Mendeleev clearly lowered all the "shaky doctrine of the atomicity of elements", but he also clearly understood that atomicity (that is, valency) is the key to classification. "To characterize an element, apart from other data, two are required by observation of experience and comparisons of data obtained: knowledge of atomic weight and knowledge of atomicity." That's when the experience of working on Organic Chemistry came in handy for Mendeleev, that's when the idea of unsaturated and saturated, limiting
organic compounds. In fact, a direct analogy suggested to him that of all the valency values that a given element can have, the highest limiting valency should be considered characteristic, the one that should be taken as the basis for classification. As for the question of which valency - hydrogen or oxygen - to be guided by, Mendeleev found the answer to it quite easily. While relatively few elements combine with hydrogen, almost everything combines with oxygen, so the form of oxygen compounds - oxides - should be guided when building a system. These considerations are by no means baseless guesses. Recently, an interesting table was discovered in the scientist's archive, compiled by Dmitry Ivanovich in 1862, shortly after the publication of Organic Chemistry. This table lists all oxygen compounds of 25 elements known to Mendeleev. And when, seven years later, Dmitry Ivanovich began the final stage, this table undoubtedly served him well. Laying out the cards, rearranging them, swapping places, Dmitry Ivanovich gazes intently at the mean, abbreviated notes and figures. Here are the alkali metals - lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, cesium. How clearly expressed in them "metallicity"! Not the “metallicity”, by which any person understands the characteristic brilliance, malleability, high strength and thermal conductivity, but the “metallicity” is chemical. "Metallicity", which causes these soft, fusible metals to quickly oxidize and even burn in air, while giving strong oxides. When combined with water, these oxides form caustic alkalis that turn litmus blue. All of them are monovalent in oxygen and give surprisingly correct changes in density, melting point and boiling point, depending on the increase in atomic weight. But the antipodes of alkali metals - halogens - fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine. Dmitry Ivanovich can Ann guess that the lightest of them is fluorine - apparently a gas. For in 1869, no one had yet been able to isolate fluorine from compounds - the most typical and most energetic of all non-metals. It is followed by a heavier, well-studied chlorine gas, then a dark brown liquid with a pungent odor - bromine, and iodine, crystalline with a metallic sheen. Halogens are also univalent, but univalent in hydrogen. With oxygen, they give a number of unstable oxides, of which the limiting one has the formula R2O7. This means: the maximum valency of halogens for oxygen is 7. A solution of C1 2 O7 in water produces a strong perchloric acid that turns litmus paper red. Mendeleev's trained eye distinguishes some more groups of elements, not as bright, however, as alkali metals and halogens. Alkaline earth metals - calcium, strontium and barium, giving oxides of the RO type; sulfur, selenium, tellurium, forming a higher oxide of the RO3 type; nitrogen and phosphorus with the highest oxide R2O5. There is a chemical similarity, although not obvious, between carbon and silicon, which give oxides of the RO2 type, and between aluminum and boron, the highest oxide of which is R203. But then everything gets confused, differences are blurred, individualities are lost. And although the existence of separate groups, separate families could be considered an established fact, “the connection between the groups was completely unclear: here are halides, here are alkali metals, here are metals like zinc - they do not turn into each other in the same way as one family into another . In other words, it was not known how these families were related to each other. Nowadays it is easy to prove: the meaning of the periodic law is the establishment of a relationship between the highest valence in oxygen and the atomic weight of an element. But then, more than a hundred years ago, only 63 of the current 104 elements were known to Mendeleev; the atomic weights of ten of them turned out to be underestimated by 1.5-2 times; of the 63 elements, only 17 combined with hydrogen, and the higher salt-forming oxides of many elements decomposed at such a rate that they were unknown, so their higher oxygen valency turned out to be underestimated. But the greatest difficulty was presented by elements with intermediate properties. Take, for example, aluminum. In terms of physical properties, it is a metal, but in terms of chemical properties, you won’t understand what. The combination of its oxide with water is a strange substance, either a weak alkali or a weak acid. It all depends on what it reacts to. With a strong acid, it behaves like an alkali, and with a strong alkali, it behaves like an acid. Academician B. Kedrov, a deep connoisseur of Mendeleev's work on the periodic law, believes that Dmitry Ivanovich in his research proceeded from the well-known to the unknown, from the explicit to the implicit. First, he built a horizontal series of alkali metals, so reminiscent of the homologous series of organic chemistry.
Lf = 7; Na = 23; K = 39; Rb = 85.4; Cs=133.
Peering into the second pronounced row - halogens - he discovered an amazing pattern; each halogen is lighter than the alkali metal close to it in atomic weight by 4-6 units. This means that a number of halogens can be placed above a number of alkali metals:
F Cl Br J
Li Ns K Rb Cs
R C1 Br J
Li Na K Rb Cs
Cs Sr Ba
The atomic weight of fluorine is 19, oxygen is closest to it - 16. Isn't it clear that a family of oxygen analogues - sulfur, selenium, tellurium - should be placed above the halogens? Even higher is the nitrogen family: phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, bismuth. The atomic weight of each member of this family is 1-2 units less than the atomic weight of elements from the oxygen family. As row after row fits in, Mendeleev becomes more and more strengthened in the thought that he is on the right track. The oxygen valency of 7 for halogens decreases sequentially as you move up. For elements from the oxygen family, it is 6, nitrogen - 5, carbon - 4. Therefore, trivalent boron should go next. And for sure: the atomic weight of boron is one less than the atomic weight of the carbon that preceded it ... In February 1869, Mendeleev sent many chemists printed on a separate sheet of "Experiment of a system of elements based on their atomic weight and chemical similarity." And on March 6, the clerk of the Russian Chemical Society, N. Menshutkin, instead of Mendeleev, who was absent, read out at a meeting of the society a message about the classification proposed by Dmitry Ivanovich. Studying this vertical version of the periodic table, which is unusual for a modern look, it is easy to make sure that it is, so to speak, open, that rows of elements with less pronounced transition properties. There were several incorrectly arranged elements in this first version: for example, mercury fell into the copper group, uranium and gold into the aluminum group, thallium into the alkali metal group, manganese into the same group with rhodium and platinum, and cobalt and nickel took one place. Question marks placed near the symbols of some elements indicate that Mendeleev himself doubted the correctness of determining the atomic weights of thorium, tellurium and gold and considered the position in the table of erbium, yttrium and indium to be controversial. But all these inaccuracies should by no means detract from the importance of the conclusion itself: it was this first, still imperfect version that led Dmitry Ivanovich to the discovery of the great law that prompted him to put four question marks where the symbols of the four elements should have stood ... Comparison of the elements located in vertical columns led Mendeleev to the idea that their properties change periodically as the atomic weight increases. This was a fundamentally new and unexpected conclusion, since Mendeleev's predecessors, who were fond of contemplating the linear change in the properties of similar elements in groups, eluded this periodicity, which made it possible to link together all the seemingly disparate groups. In the Fundamentals of Chemistry, published in 1903, there is a table with the help of which Dmitry Ivanovich made the periodicity of the properties of chemical elements unusually clear. In a long column, he wrote out all the elements known by that time, and on the right and on the left he placed numbers showing the specific volumes and melting points, and the formulas of higher oxides and hydrates, and the higher the valency, the further the corresponding formula is from the symbol. A cursory glance at this table immediately shows how the numbers reflecting the properties of the elements periodically increase and decrease as the atomic weight steadily increases. In 1869, unexpected breaks in this smooth increase and decrease in numbers caused Mendeleev a lot of difficulties. Laying one row after another, Dmitry Ivanovich discovered that in the column going up from rubidium, divalent zinc follows pentavalent arsenic. A sharp drop in atomic weight - 10 units instead of 3-5, and a complete lack of similarity between. The properties of zinc and carbon, which is at the head of this group, led Dmitry Ivanovich to the idea: in the crosshairs of the fifth horizontal row and the third vertical column there should be an undiscovered tetravalent element, resembling carbon and silicon in properties. And since zinc had nothing in common with the further group of boron and aluminum, Mendeleev suggested that science still did not know one trivalent element - an analogue of boron. The same considerations prompted him to suggest the existence of two more elements with atomic weights of 45 and 180. It took Mendeleev's truly amazing chemical intuition to make such bold assumptions, and it took his truly immense chemical erudition to predict the properties of elements not yet discovered and correct many errors, relating to little-studied elements. Dmitry Ivanovich did not accidentally call his first table "experience", by this he, as it were, emphasized its incompleteness; but in the next year he gave the periodic system of elements that perfect form, which, almost unchanged, has survived to this day. The "openness" of the vertical version, apparently, did not correspond to Mendeleev's ideas about harmony. He felt that from a chaotic pile of parts he managed to put together a car, but he clearly saw how far this car was from perfection. And he decided to redesign the table, break the double row that was its backbone, and place alkali metals and halogens at opposite ends of the table. Then all the other elements will be, as it were, inside the structure and will serve as a gradual natural transition from one extreme to another. And as often happens with brilliant creations, a formal, it would seem, perestroika suddenly opened up new, previously unsuspected and unguessed connections and comparisons. By August 1869, Dmitry Ivanovich made four new sketches of the system. Working on them, he revealed the so-called double similarity between the elements, which he first placed in different groups. So the second group - the group of alkaline earth metals - turned out to consist of two subgroups: the first - beryllium, magnesium, calcium, strontium and barium and the second - zinc, cadmium, mercury. Further, the understanding of the periodic dependence allowed Mendeleev to correct the atomic weights of 11 elements and change the location in the system of 20 elements! The result of this furious work in 1871 was the famous article "Periodic Law for the Chemical Elements" and that classic version of the periodic system, which now adorns chemical and physical laboratories throughout the world. Dmitry Ivanovich himself was very proud of this article. In his old age, he wrote: “This is the best collection of my views and considerations on the periodicity of the elements and the original, according to which so much was written later about this system. This is the main reason for my scientific fame - because much was justified much later. Indeed, later much was justified, but all this was later, and then ... Now you learn with amazement that most chemists perceived the periodic system only as a convenient textbook for students. In the quoted letter to Zinin, Dmitry Ivanovich wrote: "If the Germans do not know my work ... I will make sure that they know." Fulfilling this promise, he asked his fellow chemist F. Wreden to translate into German his fundamental work on the periodic law, and, having received printing presses on November 15, 1871, he sent them to many foreign chemists. But, alas, Dmitry Ivanovich received not only a competent opinion, but no answer at all to his letters. Neither from J. Dumas, nor from A. Wurtz, nor from C, Cannizzaro, J. Marignac, V. Oudling, G. Roscoe, X. Blomstrand, A. Bayer and other chemists. Dmitry Ivanovich could not understand what was the matter. He leafed through his article again and again, and again and again he was convinced that it was full of exciting interest. Is it not surprising that he, without making any experiments and measurements and based only on the periodic law, proved that beryllium, which was previously considered trivalent, is actually divalent? Isn't the correctness of the periodic law proved by the fact that, based on it, Mendeleev established the trivalence of thallium, which was previously considered an alkali metal? Isn't it convincing that Mendeleev, based on the periodic law, attributed a valency of three to little-studied indium, which was confirmed a few months later by measurements of the heat capacity of indium made by Bunsen? And yet this did not convince "daddy Bunsen" of anything. When one of the young students tried to draw his attention to the periodic table, he only angrily waved it off: “Go away from me with these guesses. You will find such correctness between the numbers of the exchange sheet. And the correction of the atomic weights of uranium and a number of other elements, which Dmitry Ivanovich himself liked, dictated by periodic legality, caused only a reproach from the German physicist Lothar Meyer, to whom, by a strange irony of fate, they subsequently tried to attribute priority in creating the periodic system. “It would be hasty,” he wrote in the Liebig Annals about Mendeleev’s articles, “to change the hitherto accepted atomic weights on the basis of such a fragile starting point.” Mendeleev began to get the impression that these people were listening and not hearing, looking and not seeing. They do not see written words in black and white: “The system of elements has not only pedagogical significance, not only facilitates the study of various facts, putting them in order and connection, but also has a purely scientific significance, opening up analogies and thereby pointing out new ways to study the elements. They do not see that “until now we have had no reason to predict the properties of unknown elements, we could not even judge the lack or absence of one or another of them ... Only blind chance and special insight and observation led to the discovery of new elements. There was almost no theoretical interest in the discovery of new elements, and therefore the most important field of chemistry, namely the study of the elements, has so far attracted only a few chemists. The law of periodicity opens up a new path in this last respect, giving a special, independent interest even to such elements as yttrium and erbium, in which, until now, it must be confessed, only very few have been interested. But most of all, Mendeleev was struck by indifference to what he himself wrote with pride in his declining years: “It was a risk, but a correct and successful one.” Convinced of the truth of the periodic law, in an article sent to many chemists of the world, he not only boldly predicted the existence of three yet undiscovered elements, but also described their properties in the most detailed way. Seeing that this amazing discovery also did not interest chemists, Dmitry Ivanovich made an attempt to make all these discoveries himself. He traveled abroad to purchase minerals containing, as it seemed to him, the elements he was looking for. He started the study of rare earth elements. He instructed student N. Bauer to make metallic uranium and measure its heat capacity. But a mass of other scientific themes and organizational affairs swept over him and easily distracted him from work, which was unusual for the warehouse of his soul. In the early 1870s, Dmitry Ivanovich took up the study of the elasticity of gases and left time and events to test and verify the periodic system of elements, in the truth of which he himself was absolutely sure. “While writing in 1871 an article on the application of the periodic law to the determination of the properties of elements not yet discovered, I did not think that I would live to justify this consequence of the periodic law,” Mendeleev recalled in one of the last editions of Fundamentals of Chemistry, “but reality answered differently. Three elements were described by me: ekabor, ekaaluminum and ekasilicon, and less than 20 years later I had the greatest joy to see all three discovered ... ”And the first of the three was eka-aluminum - gallium. Then the discoveries of the elements rained down, as if from a cornucopia! In the classic work "Fundamentals of Chemistry", which went through 8 editions in Russian and several editions in many foreign languages during the author's lifetime, Mendeleev for the first time expounded inorganic chemistry on the basis of the periodic law. Therefore, naturally, the first edition of "Fundamentals of Chemistry" 1869-71. is a desirable subject for many collectors and bibliophiles of the world who collect scientific, technical and priority topics. Naturally, Fundamentals of Chemistry was included in the famous PMM, No. 407 and DSB, volume IX, p.p. 286-295. Naturally, they are present at Sotheby's and Christie's auctions. Copies with the author's autograph are extremely rare!
1. Kudryavtsev P.S., Confederates I.Ya. History of physics and technology. M.: State. uch.-ped. publisher Min. Enlightenment of the RSFSR, 1960.
2. Mendeleev D.I. Works. In 25 vols. L.-M., 1934-1954.
3. People of Russian science. Essays on leading figures in natural science and technology. [Comp. and ed. I.V. Kuznetsov]; Part II. M.-L.: OGIZ, 1948.
4. Technology in its historical development (70s of the 19th - early 20th centuries). Moscow: Nauka, 1982.
5. Shukhov V.G. Oil pipelines // Bulletin of Industry, 1884. No. 7. S. 5.
6. Shukhov V.G. Pipelines and their application in the oil industry. M.: Ed. Polytechnic Society, 1894. 84 p.
M. 3. Ziyatdinova
Russian University of Chemical Technology DI. Mendeleev, Moscow, Russia
THE SIGNIFICANCE OF DMITRY IVANOVICH MENDELEEV'S TEXTBOOK "FUNDAMENTALS OF CHEMISTRY" FOR TRAINING ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES
The way, passed by D.I. Mendeleev lo originate his manual "Osnovy himii" ("The basis of chemistry") is described step by step in the report. The importance of this manual and the periodic law is illustrated with well known examples. "Osnovy himii" had special importance in the 19th century, when there were no methodized general chemistry manuals. That time only specific chemistry textbooks were in use. The periodic law, discovered by Mendeleev, is hardly overestimated even today - many chemical elements are discovered which chemical behavior would be unknown if there was no periodic law.
The article describes the path of DIMendeleev to the creation of his textbook "Fundamentals of Chemistry". Known examples show the importance of this textbook and the periodic law. The Fundamentals of Chemistry was of particular importance in the 19th century, when there were no systematic textbooks on general chemistry. At that time, there were only manuals on specific applied aspects of chemistry. The periodic law discovered by Mendeleev is difficult to overestimate even today - many elements are already known, the properties of which we would not know anything if there were no periodic law.
Introduction. In the 19th century, chemistry began to enter the path of widespread use in human practice. This is the time of the formation of the theoretical foundations of the subject: atomic and molecular theory, the theory of the structure of organic matter, the doctrine of the chemical process, the periodic law. Mendeleev emphasized more than once that instead of the specific work in the field of organic synthesis that was widespread in the scientific world at that time, one should strive for generalizing works: for understanding the nature of the chemical process and clarifying the causes that affect its course.
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It was this idea that he followed when creating both the periodic law and his textbook "Fundamentals of Chemistry", which raised the teaching of chemistry to a completely new level of development. At that time, in terms of the richness and courage of scientific thought, the originality of the coverage of the material, the impact on the development and teaching of chemistry, this textbook had no equal in the world chemical literature.
Main works. Mendeleev devoted all his life to science. The range of his interests was exceptionally wide and varied. Even in the gymnasium, he was interested in the physical and mathematical sciences, history and geography. At the institute and subsequent scientific activity, he also did not limit himself only to general chemistry, although the bulk of scientific works relate specifically to this discipline. Mendeleev also conducted research in the field of physics, chemical technology, economics, agriculture, metrology, geography, meteorology.
In 1854-1856, the scientist studied the phenomena of isomorphism, revealing the relationship between the crystalline form and the chemical composition of compounds, as well as the dependence of the properties of elements on the magnitude of their atomic volumes.
In 1859 he designed a pycnometer - a device for determining the density of a liquid.
In 1860 he discovered the "absolute boiling point of liquids", or the critical temperature.
In the years 1865-1887 he created a generous theory of solutions and developed ideas about the existence of compounds of variable composition.
In 1874, while investigating gases, Mendeleev found the general equation of state for an ideal gas, including, in particular, the dependence of the state of a gas on temperature, discovered in 1834 by the physicist B. P. E. Clapeyron (Clapeyron-Mendeleev equation).
He left over 500 printed works, among which the classic "Fundamentals of Chemistry" - the first harmonious presentation of inorganic chemistry. Author of fundamental research: in chemistry, chemical technology, physics, metrology, aeronautics, meteorology, agriculture, economics, public education - closely related to the needs of the development of the productive forces of Russia.
Creation of the periodic law and the textbook "Fundamentals of Chemistry" In 1867, Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleev headed the department of general chemistry at the university. In preparing for the presentation of his subject, he needed to create not a course in chemistry, but a real, integral science of chemistry with a general theory and consistency of all parts of this science. He fulfilled this task with brilliance in his fundamental work - the textbook "Fundamentals of Chemistry".
Mendeleev began working on the textbook in 1867 and finished in 1871. The book was published in separate editions, the first appeared in late May - early June 1868.
In the process of working on the 2nd part of the Fundamentals of Chemistry, Mendeleev gradually moved from grouping elements according to valence to their arrangement according to the similarity of properties and atomic weight. In mid-February 1869, Mendeleev, continuing to think about the structure of the subsequent sections of the book, came close to the problem of creating a rational system of chemical elements.
In the process of work, Mendeleev used cards on which the main properties of the elements were recorded. Laying out cards in the form of solitaire, he managed to create a version of the table, covering almost all the elements. In the center were located (horizontally under each other) groups of alkali metals and halogens. Signing further in the course of the change in atomic weights the remaining groups (above and below the central ones), Mendeleev noticed: a consistent increase in the atomic weights of elements is accompanied by a periodic change in their properties. By the summer of 1870, places were found in the system for all the elements known at that time.
In its final form, the table was published at the beginning of 1871 in the last issue of the 1st edition of Fundamentals of Chemistry. The 3rd edition of Fundamentals of Chemistry, which was published in 1877, can be considered a peculiar result of Mendeleev's work in the field of development and improvement of the periodic law in the 70s. This work, while maintaining the general style and spirit of previous editions, contained a new, more perfect form of presentation of the periodic law.
The Periodic Law and the Fundamentals of Chemistry opened a new era not only in chemistry, but in all natural sciences. Today this law has the meaning of the deepest law of nature.
But the problem of finding the physical causes of the phenomenon of periodicity remained. In search of ways to solve it, Mendeleev proceeded from the main thing: the properties of elements were in a periodic dependence on their atomic weights, i.e., on mass.
In 1869-1871 he developed ideas of periodicity, introduced the concept of the place of an element in the Periodic system as a set of its properties in comparison with the properties of other elements.
On this basis, he corrected the values of the atomic masses of many elements (beryllium, indium, uranium, etc.).
In 1870, he predicted the existence, calculated atomic masses and described the properties of three yet undiscovered elements - "ekaaluminum" (discovered in 1875 and named gallium), "ekabor" (discovered in 1879 and named scandium) and "ekasilicia" (discovered in 1885 and named Germany).
Then he predicted the existence of eight more elements, including "dwitellurium" - polonium (discovered in 1898), "ekaioda" - astatine (discovered in 1942-1943), "dvimarganese" - technetium (discovered in 1937), "ecacesia - France (opened in 1939).
The periodic law and the periodic system became Mendeleev's most important contribution to the development of natural science. The discovery of the law was the result of the study of the physicochemical properties of elements. It reflected both the analysis of the problem of science of the XIX century, and experimental research
compounds of variable composition. A certain role in this was played by the scientist's passion for metrology, his penchant for accurate measurements and calculations. The study of Mendeleev's work experience for 15 years and the state of science of that time proved that it was he who was the researcher who could make a creative synthesis of the results already achieved, correctly defining the goals and paths of his work. In overcoming this, his scientific method played a decisive role. The scientist believed that the periodic law and many other laws of chemistry should be developed as a result of a deeper penetration into the structure of matter. The scientist was absolutely sure of the correctness of the law and used it without fear.
The textbook "Fundamentals of Chemistry" went through 8 editions during the life of the author and was translated into foreign languages more than once. Mendeleev taught at many educational institutions in St. Petersburg.
The last years of his life, D. I. Mendeleev works mainly on new editions of the Fundamentals of Chemistry
Editing the 8th edition, Mendeleev emphasized in the introduction: “In relation to the now 8th edition of this book, I consider it very important to pay attention to the fact that in essence it represents only a repetition of previous editions, supplemented in the sense of the actual successes of our science. over recent years, and the fact that here for the first time the entire beginning of the book is devoted only to the elementary foundations of the doctrine of the elements ... It seems to me that the order now accepted is more in line with the essence of the matter, because it is better and more fruitful for beginners to read additions only after familiarization with all the variety of elements ... Giving my book to the general court, I know that there will be many mistakes and omissions in it, but I hope that there will be people who will remember that the sciences are immense, and the strength of an individual is limited ... In additions, I nevertheless tried to avoid not only everything that I consider doubtful, but also those details that are included both in the special branches of chemistry (for example, in the analytical, organic, physical, theoretical, physiological, agronomic and technical parts of chemistry), and and into individual disciplines of natural science, which in many respects are in ever closer contact with chemistry, which, in my opinion, should take a place in natural science next to mechanics. For this latter, matter is a system of weighty points, almost alien to individuality and only consisting in a certain moving equilibrium. For chemistry, this is a whole living world with an infinite variety of individualities both in the elements themselves and in their combinations. Studying the general monotony from a mechanical point of view, I think that the highest point in the knowledge of nature cannot be reached without taking great attention to the individual, in which chemistry seeks general laws.
Assessment of the achievements of D.I. Mendeleev's contemporaries. Here is the assessment given to this work by A. Le Chatelier: “All chemistry textbooks of the second half of the 19th century are built according to the same model, but only the only attempt to really move away from the classical ones deserves to be noted.
traditions - this is Mendeleev's attempt; his guide to chemistry is conceived but on a very special plan.
In addition to the need to correct the atomic masses of elements, clarify the formulas of oxides and the valency of elements in compounds, the Periodic Law directed further work of chemists and physicists to study the structure of atoms, to establish the causes of periodicity and the physical meaning of the law.
In 1911, the Museum of D. I. Mendeleev was organized.
In 1917, envoys from Smolny protected the scientist's library and archive from looting and destruction. Cities, factories, scientific institutions, ships are named after D. I. Mendeleev. The D. I. Mendeleev All-Union Chemical Society organizes Mendeleev Congresses and Mendeleev Readings. Many ideas of D. I. Mendeleev in the light of modern science receive a deeper justification and explanation. The Pravda newspaper wrote: “Our country needs its own Mendeleevs - great and brilliant revolutionaries and innovators of science, capable of moving it forward with the same gigantic steps that Mendeleev did in his time.”
Many foreign academies of sciences, paying tribute to Mendeleev's contribution to science, during his lifetime made him a member or corresponding member of their scientific communities.
American scientists, who synthesized element No. 101 in 1955, gave it the name Mendelevium "... in recognition of the priority of the great Russian chemist, who was the first to use the periodic table of elements to predict the chemical properties of the then undiscovered elements." This principle was the key to the discovery of almost all transuranium elements,
In 1964, the name of Mendeleev was included on the Board of Honor of Science of the University of Bridgeport (Connecticut, USA) among the names of the greatest scientists in the world.
Conclusion. For many years, promoting the scientific heritage of D. I. Mendeleev, “we know well that it helped thousands of young men and women in choosing a life path, in studying and working, in overcoming difficulties, and finally, in self-organization, without which creative work is impossible. What conquers the life example of a great scientist, what attracts attention, makes you imitate?
First of all, of course, outstanding achievements in scientific activity.
Life and. the work of D. I. Mendeleev is an example of an organic combination of a flight of fantasy, imagination and the ability to work and think concretely, concentratedly, without scattering. Mendeleev embodied all these principles in his work Fundamentals of Chemistry. Thus, having prepared both a wide scientific base for that time, and a field for research, fundamentally different from the work of its predecessors and based on the periodic law, created in the process of working on a textbook for students and designed to facilitate the assimilation of information related to the teaching of general chemistry.
Recommended literature on the materials of the life path and creative activity of D.I. Mendeleev includes such sources as: D.I. Mendeleev. Fundamentals of Chemistry (D.I. Mendeleev. The basis of chemistry); Yu.I. Solovyov, D.N. Trifonov, A.N. Shamin. History of chemistry (U.I.Soloviev, D.N.Trifonov, A.N.Shamm. The history of chemistry); Altshuler S. How the periodic law was discovered by Mendeleev. (Altshuler S. How Mendeleev discovered the periodic law); Makarenya A.A., Rysev Yu.V. DI. Mendeleev (Makarenya A.A., Rysev U.V. D.I.Mendeleev); Pegryanov I.V., Trifonov D.N., The great law (Petryanov I.V., Trifonov D.N. The great law); Averbukh A.Ya. D.I.Mendeleev and the development of domestic industry (Averbuh A.Ya. D.I.Mendeleev and the development of domestic industry); Makarenya A. A., Rysev Yu.V. D.I. Mendeleev: book. for students (Makarenya A.A., Rysev U.V. D.I. Mendeleev: students" textbook)
1. [Electronic resource]. // URL: http://www.rustest.spb.ru. (Accessed 01.03.2009).
2. [Electronic resource]. // URL: http://greatestbook.info. (Accessed 01.03.2009).
3. [Electronic resource]. // URL: http://schooIchemistry.by.ru. (Accessed 01.03.2009).
E. S. Koyava, N. Yu. Denisova
Russian University of Chemical Technology D. I. Mendeleev, Moscow, Russia
SAVVA IVANOVICH ZOLOTUKHA - "KING OF THE RUSSIAN ATOM"
In this work there are investigations of the life and activity of the most important person in the field of the atomic industry in the middle of the twentieth century, Savva Ivanovich Zolotukha. His deposit in development of industry uranium ore the highest frequency is analyzed. He played a special role in opening up different ammunitions and inculcation the new technology equipment in the years of the Second World War. Personal qualities, opinions of contemporaries are shown. There are documentary sources, archives, photographers, extracts from the personal affair.
This paper studies the life and work of one of the most significant people in the field of the nuclear industry in the middle of the 20th century, Savva Ivanovich Zolotukha. Its contribution to the development of the production of uranium ores and the production of high-frequency metal uranium is analyzed. Its special role in the development of various ammunition and the introduction of new equipment technologies during the Second World War is noted. Showing personal qualities, reviews of contemporaries. Documentary sources, archive, photographs, extracts from a personal file are given.
The periodic law was discovered by D.I. Mendeleev while working on the text of the textbook "Fundamentals of Chemistry", when he encountered difficulties in systematizing the factual material. By mid-February 1869, thinking over the structure of the textbook, the scientist gradually came to the conclusion that the properties of simple substances and the atomic masses of elements are connected by a certain regularity.
The discovery of the periodic table of elements was not made by chance, it was the result of enormous work, long and painstaking work, which was spent both by Dmitry Ivanovich himself and by many chemists from among his predecessors and contemporaries. “When I began to finalize my classification of the elements, I wrote on separate cards each element and its compounds, and then, arranging them in the order of groups and rows, I received the first visual table of the periodic law. But this was only the final chord, the result of all previous work ... "- said the scientist. Mendeleev emphasized that his discovery was the result that completed twenty years of thinking about the relationships between elements, thinking from all sides of the relationship of elements.
On February 17 (March 1), the manuscript of the article, containing a table entitled "An experiment on a system of elements based on their atomic weight and chemical similarity," was completed and submitted for printing with notes for compositors and with the date "February 17, 1869." The report on the discovery of Mendeleev was made by the editor of the Russian Chemical Society, Professor N.A. Menshutkin at a meeting of the society on February 22 (March 6), 1869. Mendeleev himself was not present at the meeting, since at that time, on the instructions of the Free Economic Society, he examined the cheese factories of the Tver and Novgorod provinces.
In the first version of the system, the elements were arranged by scientists in nineteen horizontal rows and six vertical columns. On February 17 (March 1), the discovery of the periodic law was by no means completed, but only began. Dmitry Ivanovich continued its development and deepening for almost three more years. In 1870, Mendeleev published the second version of the system (The Natural System of Elements) in Fundamentals of Chemistry: horizontal columns of analogous elements turned into eight vertically arranged groups; the six vertical columns of the first version turned into periods beginning with an alkali metal and ending with a halogen. Each period was divided into two rows; elements of different rows included in the group formed subgroups.
The essence of Mendeleev's discovery was that with an increase in the atomic mass of chemical elements, their properties do not change monotonously, but periodically. After a certain number of elements of different properties, arranged in ascending atomic weight, the properties begin to repeat. The difference between Mendeleev's work and the works of his predecessors was that Mendeleev had not one, but two bases for classifying elements - atomic mass and chemical similarity. In order for the periodicity to be fully respected, Mendeleev corrected the atomic masses of some elements, placed several elements in his system contrary to the then accepted ideas about their similarity with others, left empty cells in the table where elements that were not yet discovered should have been placed.
In 1871, on the basis of these works, Mendeleev formulated the Periodic Law, the form of which was somewhat improved over time.
The Periodic Table of the Elements had a great influence on the subsequent development of chemistry. Not only was it the first natural classification of the chemical elements, which showed that they form a coherent system and are in close connection with each other, but it was also a powerful tool for further research. At the time when Mendeleev compiled his table on the basis of the periodic law discovered by him, many elements were not yet known. Over the next 15 years, Mendeleev's predictions were brilliantly confirmed; all three expected elements were discovered (Ga, Sc, Ge), which was the greatest triumph of the periodic law.
ARTICLE "MENDELEEV"
Mendeleev (Dmitry Ivanovich) - prof., b. in Tobolsk, January 27, 1834). His father, Ivan Pavlovich, director of the Tobolsk gymnasium, soon became blind and died. Mendeleev, a ten-year-old boy, remained in the care of his mother, Maria Dmitrievna, nee Kornilyeva, a woman of an outstanding mind and enjoyed general respect in the local intelligentsia society. M.'s childhood and high school years are spent in an environment conducive to the formation of an original and independent character: her mother was a supporter of the free awakening of her natural vocation. Love for reading and studying was clearly expressed in M. only at the end of the gymnasium course, when the mother, deciding to send her son to science, took him as a 15-year-old boy from Siberia, first to Moscow, and then a year later to St. Petersburg, where she placed him in a pedagogical institute… A real, all-consuming study of all branches of positive science began at the institute… At the end of the course at the institute, due to poor health, he left for the Crimea and was assigned as a gymnasium teacher, first in Simferopol, then in Odessa. But already in 1856. he again returned to St. Petersburg, entered as a Privatdozent in St. Petersburg. univ. and defended his dissertation "On specific volumes", for a master's degree in chemistry and physics ... In 1859, M. was sent abroad ... In 1861, M. again became a privatdozent in St. Petersburg. university. Soon after, he published the course "Organic Chemistry" and the article "On the Limit of СnН2n+ Hydrocarbons". In 1863, Mr.. M. was appointed professor of St. Petersburg. Technological Institute and for several years dealt with technical issues a lot: he traveled to the Caucasus to study oil near Baku, made agricultural experiments Imp. Free Economic Society, published technical manuals, etc. In 1865, he studied alcohol solutions according to their specific gravity, which served as the subject of his doctoral dissertation, which he defended the following year. Professor of St. Petersburg. univ. in the Department of Chemistry, M. was elected and appointed in 1866. Since then, his scientific activity has taken on such dimensions and diversity that in a brief essay it is possible to point out only the most important works. In 1868 - 1870. he writes his Fundamentals of Chemistry, where for the first time the principle of his periodic system of elements is carried out, which made it possible to foresee the existence of new, yet undiscovered elements and to accurately predict the properties of both themselves and their various compounds. In 1871 - 1875. engaged in the study of elasticity and expansion of gases and publishes his essay "On the elasticity of gases". In 1876, on behalf of the government, he went to Pennsylvania to inspect American oil fields and then several times to the Caucasus to study the economic conditions of oil production and the conditions for oil production, which led to the widespread development of the oil industry in Russia; he himself is engaged in the study of petroleum hydrocarbons, publishes several essays about everything and analyzes the issue of the origin of oil in them. Around the same time, he dealt with issues related to aeronautics and the resistance of liquids, accompanying his studies with the publication of separate works. In the 80s. he again turns to the study of solutions, which resulted in Op. "Investigation of aqueous solutions by specific gravity", the conclusions of which found so many followers among chemists of all countries. In 1887, during a total solar eclipse, he rises alone in a balloon in Klin, himself makes a risky adjustment of the valves, makes the ball obedient and enters into the annals of this phenomenon everything that he managed to notice. In 1888, he studied the economic conditions of the Donetsk coal region on the spot. In 1890, Mr.. M. stopped reading his course in inorganic chemistry in St. Petersburg. university. Other extensive economic and state tasks from that time began to especially occupy him. Appointed as a member of the Council of Trade and Manufactories, he takes an active part in the development and systematic implementation of a tariff that is patronizing for the Russian manufacturing industry and publishes the essay "Explanatory Tariff of 1890", interpreting in all respects why Russia needed such patronage. At the same time, he was involved by the military and naval ministries in the question of re-equipping the Russian army and navy to develop a type of smokeless powder, and after a trip to England and France, which then already had their own gunpowder, he was appointed in 1891 as a consultant to the manager of the naval ministry on powder issues and, working together with employees (his former students) in the scientific and technical laboratory of the naval department, opened specifically for the purpose of studying the aforementioned issue, already at the very beginning of 1892 he indicated the required type of smokeless powder, called pyrocollodic, universal and easily adaptable to any firearms. With the opening of the Chamber of Weights and Measures in the Ministry of Finance, in 1893, it is determined in it by the scientific custodian of measures and weights and begins the publication of the Vremennik, in which all measurement studies carried out in the chamber are published. Sensitive and responsive to all scientific issues of paramount importance, M. was also keenly interested in other phenomena of current Russian social life, and wherever possible, he said his word ... Since 1880, he began to be interested in the art world, especially Russian, collects art collections and etc., and in 1894 he was elected a full member of the Imperial Academy of Arts ... The various scientific issues of paramount importance that were the subject of M.'s study, due to their multiplicity, cannot be listed here. He wrote up to 140 works, articles and books. But the time has not yet come to assess the historical significance of these works, and M., we hope, will not stop researching and expressing his powerful word on newly emerging issues, both science and life, for a long time to come ...
RUSSIAN CHEMICAL SOCIETY
The Russian Chemical Society is a scientific organization founded at St. Petersburg University in 1868 and was a voluntary association of Russian chemists.
The need to create the Society was announced at the 1st Congress of Russian Naturalists and Doctors, held in St. Petersburg in late December 1867 - early January 1868. At the Congress, the decision of the participants in the Chemical Section was announced:
The Chemistry Section declared a unanimous desire to unite in the Chemical Society for the communication of the already established forces of Russian chemists. The section believes that this society will have members in all cities of Russia, and that its publication will include the works of all Russian chemists, printed in Russian.
By this time, chemical societies had already been established in several European countries: the London Chemical Society (1841), the Chemical Society of France (1857), the German Chemical Society (1867); The American Chemical Society was founded in 1876.
The Charter of the Russian Chemical Society, compiled mainly by D.I. Mendeleev, was approved by the Ministry of Public Education on October 26, 1868, and the first meeting of the Society was held on November 6, 1868. Initially, it included 35 chemists from St. Petersburg, Kazan, Moscow, Warsaw, Kiev, Kharkov and Odessa. In the first year of its existence, the RCS grew from 35 to 60 members and continued to grow smoothly in subsequent years (129 in 1879, 237 in 1889, 293 in 1899, 364 in 1909, 565 in in 1917).
In 1869, the Russian Chemical Society got its own printed organ - the Journal of the Russian Chemical Society (ZhRHO); the magazine was published 9 times a year (monthly, except for the summer months).
In 1878, the RCS merged with the Russian Physical Society (founded in 1872) to form the Russian Physical and Chemical Society. The first Presidents of RFHO were A.M. Butlerov (in 1878-1882) and D.I. Mendeleev (in 1883-1887). In connection with the merger, in 1879 (from the 11th volume) the Journal of the Russian Chemical Society was renamed into the Journal of the Russian Physical and Chemical Society. The periodicity of the publication was 10 issues per year; The journal consisted of two parts - chemical (ZhRHO) and physical (ZhRFO).
For the first time, many works of the classics of Russian chemistry were published on the pages of the ZhRHO. The works of D.I. Mendeleev on the creation and development of the periodic system of elements and A.M. Butlerov, connected with the development of his theory of the structure of organic compounds ... During the period from 1869 to 1930, 5067 original chemical studies were published in the ZhRHO, abstracts and review articles on certain issues of chemistry, translations of the most interesting works from foreign journals were also published.
RFHO became the founder of the Mendeleev Congresses on General and Applied Chemistry; the first three congresses were held in St. Petersburg in 1907, 1911 and 1922. In 1919, the publication of the ZhRFKhO was suspended and resumed only in 1924.
