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27.01.202427.05.2017

In 336 BC. e. His son Alexander came to power in Greece (356-323 BC). Nowadays the word is added to his name Macedonian. And until the end of the 19th century, everyone called him Alexander the Great or Alexander III.

He was a slender young man with fair skin. His hair was almost red. Neither in his youth nor in his later years did he wear a beard. There is an assumption that it did not grow with him at all. Since the king went without a beard, those around him began to shave their beards.

However, the lack of a beard did not in any way affect the king’s courage. He went down in history as an extremely energetic and capable commander with an excellent education. This is not surprising, since the future great conqueror was taught scientific wisdom by the philosopher Aristotle.

The ambitious plans of the newly-made ruler exceeded the plans of his father Philip II. The Greek leader who ascended the throne was only 20 years old, but he already dreamed of world domination. These dreams turned into the conquests of Alexander the Great. Their scale shocked not only contemporaries, but also all subsequent generations of human civilization. In just 10 years, a gigantic territory from Greece to India was conquered. Over the following centuries, not a single commander managed to accomplish this.

Conquests of Alexander the Great on the map

War with Persia

Initial period of the war

The war with Persia began in 334 BC. e. A relatively small army set off on a campaign to the East. Its number was 35 thousand people. But the warriors were distinguished by iron discipline, training and combat experience. In terms of their military skill, they were head and shoulders above the Persian troops. The army consisted not only of Macedonians, but also of inhabitants of other Greek city-states.

At the very first clashes, the Greeks inflicted a number of serious defeats on the Persian army stationed near the border. At the same time, many noble Persians died. The owners of the eastern lands were shocked by this defeat. Meanwhile, the conquerors took possession of the lands of Asia Minor and reached the territory of Syria.

Image of Alexander the Great on an ancient mosaic

In 333 BC. e. The Persian army led by King Darius III came out against the Macedonian conquerors. The two armies met in northern Syria near the city of Issa. In this battle, the army of Darius III suffered a crushing defeat. The king himself fled, leaving his family in the camp (mother, wife and 2 daughters). Many other Persian warriors did the same (the Persians took their wives with them on military campaigns). In addition to the women, the winners also received abandoned rich camping property.

After the victory at Issa, all of Western Asia went to the Macedonians. But going further east was dangerous, since strong Persian garrisons remained in the rear. Therefore, the Greek army moved along the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea. Here were the cities of the Phoenicians, which began to surrender one after another. According to legend, during this campaign, Alexander visited Jerusalem and even presented gifts to the Jewish god.

Depiction of Darius III on an ancient mosaic

Everything went smoothly until the Macedonian army found itself under the walls of the city of Tire. Its inhabitants refused to open the gates and surrender to the invaders. The siege lasted 7 months. Only in July 332 BC. e. the fortified city located on the island fell. The Greeks who burst into the city showed pathological cruelty towards the defenders. The conquerors mercilessly killed 8 thousand inhabitants, and forced the survivors into slavery.

The city of Gaza also offered worthy resistance. He defended himself bravely for 2 months, but in the end he fell. After this, Alexander the Great and his army entered Egypt. In this country he was greeted as a liberator from Persian slavery. Local priests declared the young king the son of the god Amun.

Alexander graciously accepted this honorary title and decorated his helmet with ram horns, since they were considered one of the most important attributes of the Egyptian deity. It was in a helmet with horns that the king’s face began to be minted on coins, and in the east the great conqueror received the nickname Two-horned.

Main period of the war

Having occupied Egypt, the Greco-Macedonian army moved to the central regions of Persia. Darius III sent envoys to the conquerors, offering to make peace. The Eastern ruler agreed to give the victors all the lands they had conquered and even offered to pay a huge indemnity. But Alexander refused to make peace, because he considered the fall of Persia inevitable.

The military leader Parmenion, who was present at the negotiations, heard the size of the indemnity and exclaimed: “If I were Alexander, I would agree immediately!” To this the king mockingly said: “And I would agree if I were Parmenion.”

In 331 BC. e. the army of Greeks and Macedonians crossed the Euphrates and Tigris and moved towards the Persian army. That one, led by Darius III, was waiting for the invaders near the village of Gaugamela. Here in October 331 BC. e. a grand battle took place.

The Persians gathered a huge army. There were many Bactrians, Sogdians and Scythians (peoples from the east of the state) in it. On the night before the battle, the Persian camp was illuminated by countless lights. The Macedonian military leaders, fearing that this spectacle would frighten the soldiers, suggested that the king attack the enemy at night, without waiting for dawn. To this Alexander proudly replied: “I don’t know how to steal victory.”

Persian chariots

Early in the morning both armies lined up. The Persian soldiers began the attack. They sent their war chariots forward. They had razor-sharp scythes attached to their wheels. However, the ranks of the Macedonian army parted and let the wildly rushing horses through. And then arrows rained down on the backs of the warriors sitting in the chariots.

After this, the Persian infantry began the attack. But she met the Macedonian phalanx. At the same time, the heavy Macedonian cavalry launched an attack from the flanks. She sowed terror and confusion in the ranks of the enemies. The Persians fled. One of the first to flee from the battlefield was King Darius III and did not stop for 2 days, fearing persecution.

The crushing defeat at Gaugamela broke the morale of the Persians. The army of Alexander the Great captured Babylon, Susa and the ancient Persian capital of Persepolis without a fight. Small military garrisons remained in the occupied areas, and the great commander himself continued the pursuit of the Persian ruler.

The fate of Darius III was unenviable. Those close to him killed him and delivered his body to Alexander. He ordered the conspirators to be executed and the treacherously killed king to be buried with all possible honors. After this, the winner himself began to be called “the king of Asia.”

Further expansion to the east was extremely successful. The Greeks subjugated Bactria and Sogdiana, which put an end to the war with the Persian power. But the conquests of Alexander the Great did not end there. Ahead lay the richest lands of fabulous India. It was there that the great commander decided to send his army.

Trek to India

Before the campaign to India, a conspiracy arose among the Macedonians against Alexander the Great. The king was accused of violating Greek laws and striving for unlimited power. He surrounded himself with noble Persians and Bactrians, and they were preparing to proclaim him a god. But the plot was discovered, and the conspirators were killed.

In 326 BC. e. The Greco-Macedonian army moved to India. Near the Hydaspes River, a tributary of the Indus, a battle took place with the army of the Indian king Porus. Here the invaders first encountered war elephants. Each of them was controlled by a driver who sat on the animal’s neck. And on the backs of the giants there were towers, in which spear throwers and archers were located.

Indian fighting elephant

At first, the formidable animals caused confusion in the ranks of the Macedonian warriors, but after wounding several elephants, the invaders felt more confident. The Indian army was defeated in this battle.

Inspired by the victory, Alexander and his army went deep into the lands of India, but the soldiers were tired of the incessant 10-year war and began to murmur. They abandoned the further journey. Neither the king's authority nor his persuasion helped.

The journey back began in the middle of 325 BC. e. The army was returning through the desert. The transition turned out to be very difficult. Many soldiers died from thirst and overheating. In the spring of 324 BC. e. The exhausted army reached the south of Iran and entered the city of Susa. This was the end of the conquests of Alexander the Great.

Return of the Macedonian army from India

The last year of the life of the great commander

In 324 BC. e. Alexander the Great settled in Babylon and proclaimed it the capital of his vast kingdom. The ruler began to carry out reforms, trying to transform the conquered lands into a single and cohesive organism. In addition, he planned a campaign to the west against the Arab tribes and Carthage.

But the great commander’s further ambitious plans never came to fruition. In the first half of June 323, Alexander the Great died of fever. The huge kingdom turned out to be a giant with feet of clay. It fell apart and was divided among the Macedonian military leaders (diadochi). Soon they proclaimed themselves kings. So in 321 BC. e. The era of Hellenistic states began.

Alexander, king of Macedonia, is one of the most legendary representatives of antiquity. Despite his very short life, the young king was able to enslave the impregnable Persian empire in just 12 years of his reign. And to this day there are many legends and myths about the great commander. The biography of Alexander the Great still contains many white spots. So, who is he, this great man who amazed everyone with his art of war?

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The making of a great commander

The Greek king, the great commander Alexander the Third is one of the most prominent personalities in history. He was also called the Great and at the same time they noted the cruelty and ruthlessness of this ambitious conqueror, who changed the entire course of history, the fate of not only his own, but also many other peoples of the world. Alexander the Great's height by today's standards was short - 150 cm, but for that time it was considered average.

The birthplace of the great conqueror is the city of Pella, the year is 356 BC. The father was the Macedonian king Philip II, who laid the foundation for future great conquests. Without this man, the future huge empire simply would not have existed.

The exam may require information about the name of Alexander’s mother. Her name was Olympias, her character fully corresponded to him, she was an unusual, intelligent, majestic and strong woman.

The future ruler and conqueror was especially attached to the Olympics and relied on it in everything. Mother played an important role in the life of Alexander the Great.

Important! Basically, they pay more attention to Philip II, but thanks to it, it was the mother of Alexander the Great who helped her son reach unprecedented heights.

Olympias, priestess of Dionysus, tamer of snakes, contributed to the suicide of Philip's seventh wife and children. It was she who became regent for her son. While he was in the East, she was an adviser and assistant in all matters. The intellectual development of the future commander was carried out by the Greek philosopher Aristotle.

This is Macedonian's teacher in the field of politics and methods of government. Father Philip II participated in numerous military campaigns, so he was practically not at home. The boy was raised by Aristotle, who paid special attention to the study of politics, ethics, as well as medicine, literature and philosophy. We can say that in his youth the future conqueror received a classical Greek education of that era.

Having become king of Macedonia at the age of twenty, in the first years of his reign he proved himself to be a great strategist and conqueror, capable of creating a huge empire, the territory of which reached the borders of India itself. Life, oversaturated with military campaigns, ended too early - in 323 BC, Alexander was only 33 years old. Courage and activities of the young king have become an integral part of the culture and history of the whole world.

The exploits of the great commander are reflected in the works of writers, artists and filmmakers, among them the following can be noted:

works of famous authors of antiquity: Diodorus, Siculo and Plutarch. Diodorus Siculus, a historian of antiquity, wrote a biography of the great commander, which was included in the historical collections “Library of History”. Siculo dedicated a number of poems and songs to the Macedonian king, which are among the first documents in Latin;
the Italian poet Dante Alighieri wrote about Alexander in the 12th canto of part 3 “” called “Hell”, where the narrative was dedicated to tyrants;
The figure of the conqueror still inspires many directors. A striking example is the film of the same name starring Colin Farrell, released in 2004.

A life full of conquests

At the age of only 16, he was forced to temporarily replace his father on the throne of Macedonia, who went on a military campaign to conquer.

Two years later, the young ruler had to defend the interests of his state and survive first military test- Battle of Chaeronea in 338 BC. The Macedonian army defeated the Greek army. In 336 BC, after Philip II was assassinated by the head of the imperial guard, his son took the throne of Macedonia.

The young king's ascension to the throne was not easy. The death of his father created problems in the government and revived the Greeks' hopes for independence from Macedonia. In addition, it stopped preparations for the invasion of Macedonian troops into Asia with the aim of enslaving the Persian Empire. After destroying the enemies within the government, having dealt with the conspirators and having secured the support of the Macedonian army, the king decided first of all to strengthen the position of Macedonia in Greece. what territories were conquered by the army of Alexander the Great during his reign.

Corinth

In 336 BC. Alexander was appointed commander-in-chief of the military League of Corinth. In the city he met the famous philosopher Diogenes. The extravagant philosopher lived in a barrel, and greatly surprised the young ruler with his lifestyle. Because the king agreed to fulfill any desire of a philosopher. He suggested that the ruler move away, since he was blocking the sun. Surprised by the answer, the young warrior said: “If I were not Alexander, I would like to be Diogenes.”

Thebes

In 335 BC. The rebel city of Thebes was destroyed and all its people were enslaved. Having established a strong position in Greece, he decided to complete the plans of his father Philip and free the Greeks enslaved by the Persian Empire.

Conquest of Asia

In 334 BC. The Macedonian army arrived in Asia at the same time as a huge fleet with the goal of attacking the Persians. There is information that Alexander first went to Troy to pay tribute to the great Greek warrior Achilles.

That same year, the Gordian Knot was broken. According to legend, the person who managed to do this soon became the ruler of all of Asia. Legend was brought to life.

In 333 BC the great military leader won the battle with the troops of the Persian king Darius the Third and liberated all the Greek cities, whose inhabitants welcomed him as a liberator.

Finally, the Greek cities were free, but Aria managed to escape. It was necessary not only to strengthen the position of Macedonia among the Greeks, but also to capture the lands of the barbarians and Persians completely, thus creating the Macedonian Empire. It was these two desires that prompted Alexander to make a number of military decisions:

during the fighting of the period 332-325. BC, the Persian Empire was completely enslaved.
332 BC Phenicia, Syria and Egypt were conquered, the inhabitants called their conqueror the son of Amon. Only representatives of the pharaoh's family dynasty received such a title.
331 BC Victory was again won over the army of Darius, after which the conquest of the capitals of the Persian Empire began: Babylon, Susa, Persepolis and Pasargadae. After the death of Darius at the hand of Besso, the conquest of the Persian Empire in 327 BC. was completed.

The death of the great conqueror

At the age of 33, the victorious tsar was at the peak of his glory, but misfortunes were not long in coming. The numerous expenses of the war led the people and the government into intolerance towards the new regime.

To avoid problems, the great conqueror built military fortified cities in all strategic points of the empire's territory, appointing their closest military commanders as rulers. All cities were called Alexandria. All attempts to raise a rebellion against his rule were nipped in the bud.

Attention! The capital of the Macedonian Empire was moved to Babylon, which at that time was located in the very center of the conquered territory.

Hoping to end the strife between his empire, the Greeks and Persia, Alexander the Great married Statera, the eldest daughter of the Persian king Darius, and many of his associates married Persian women.

On the eve of a new trip to Saudi Arabia, June 10, 323 BC., Alexander died suddenly. The death is believed to have been caused by malaria. Although this information is not confirmed by ancient documents and may be erroneous.

Other reasons could be: liver cirrhosis or poisoning. During a noisy feast, secret enemies presented the emperor with a cup of poisoned wine. The true circumstances of the death of the Macedonian ruler are still unknown.

It is worth noting a very interesting fact regarding the heritage throne after death Macedonian king. Although he had two sons, neither of them took his father's throne. As predicted in the Bible centuries before Alexander's reign, his empire was divided among the four generals of his army.

Conqueror of women's hearts

Not only did Alexander the Great’s wars end in triumphant victories and bring him fame, but his personal life was no less eventful.

His ability to win women's hearts has become one of the favorite themes of many poets and writers of our day. There were many women, but those who deserve special attention managed to win the heart young emperor.

The first wife of Alexander the Great, Roxana, was considered one of the most beautiful women in Asia. Perhaps the choice was due precisely to this reason; as we know, the Conqueror was distinguished by special vanity. The emperor's second wife was Statira, the eldest daughter of the Persian king Darius. The third wife was Parysatis, daughter of King Artaxerxes III of Persia. In addition to official wives, there were a large number of mistresses.

Unshakable character

From an early age, Alexander began to study the art of war and diplomacy. Thanks to his stubborn and unshakable character, he knew exactly what he wanted and could independently make serious decisions regarding both strategic decisions and transformations in all other areas of life.

The king limited himself in food without any problems and for a long time remained completely indifferent to the opposite sex. He had other important goals. But if his leadership was not recognized by others, he was ready to sacrifice everything to be in the spotlight. Many ancient historians speak of him as a proud, self-centered person.

The great military leader had a special charisma, therefore he enjoyed authority among his soldiers, was distinguished by great courage, and fought on the front line shoulder to shoulder with ordinary soldiers.

Biography of Alexander the Great

Alexander the Great, biography

Conclusion

Alexander the Great is a very interesting personality and unique in its own way. The commander serves as an example for many. Studying the biography of the great conqueror will be very useful and will leave a bright imprint on the mind and heart of any person.

Alexander the Great
Born: July 20, 356 BC e.
Died: June 10, 323 BC e.

Biography

Alexander the Great - Macedonian king from 336 BC. e. from the Argead dynasty, commander, creator of a world power that collapsed after his death. In Western historiography, he is better known as Alexander the Great. Even in Antiquity, Alexander gained the reputation of one of the greatest commanders in history.

Having ascended the throne at the age of 20 after the death of his father, the Macedonian king Philip II, Alexander secured the northern borders of Macedonia and completed the subjugation of Greece with the defeat of the rebellious city of Thebes. In the spring of 334 BC. e. Alexander began a legendary campaign to the East and in seven years completely conquered the Persian Empire. Then he began the conquest of India, but at the insistence of the soldiers, tired of the long campaign, he retreated.

The cities founded by Alexander, which are still the largest in several countries in our time, and the colonization of new territories in Asia by the Greeks contributed to the spread of Greek culture in the East. Almost reaching the age of 33, Alexander died in Babylon from a serious illness. Immediately his empire was divided among his generals (Diadochi), and a series of Diadochi wars reigned for several decades.

Birth and childhood

Alexander was born in 356 BC. e. in the Macedonian capital Pella. According to legend, Alexander was born on the night when Herostratus set fire to the Temple of Artemis of Ephesus, one of the Seven Wonders of the World. Already during Alexander's campaigns, a legend spread that the Persian magicians interpreted this fire as a sign of a future catastrophe for their state. But since all sorts of legends and signs always accompanied the birth and life of the great people of antiquity, the fortunately coinciding date of Alexander’s birth is sometimes considered artificial.

Alexander's exact birthday is unknown. It is often taken to be July 20, since according to Plutarch Alexander was born “on the sixth day of the month Hecatombeon (Ancient Greek ἑκατομβαιών), which the Macedonians call Loi (Ancient Greek λῷος)”; There are also dates between July 21 and 23. 1 day of hecatombeon is often taken as July 15, but exact correspondence has not been proven. However, from the testimony of Aristobulus, recorded by Arrian, it can be calculated that Alexander was born in the fall. In addition, according to Demosthenes, a contemporary king, the Macedonian month Loi actually corresponded to the Attic boedromion (September and October). Therefore, the period from October 6 to October 10 is often given as the date of birth.

His parents - Macedonian King Philip II and the daughter of the Epirus king Olympias. Alexander himself, according to tradition, descended from the mythical Hercules through the kings of Argos, from whom the first Macedonian king Karan allegedly branched off. According to the legendary version, which became widespread at the instigation of Alexander himself, his real father was Pharaoh Nectaneb II. It was expected that the child would be named Amyntas in honor of Philip's father, but he named him Alexander - probably with political overtones in honor of the Macedonian king Alexander I, nicknamed "Phihelline" (friend of the Greeks).

The greatest influence on little Alexander was his mother. The father was engaged in wars with the Greek policies, and the child spent most of his time with Olympias. She probably tried to turn her son against Philip, and Alexander developed an ambivalent attitude towards his father: while admiring his stories about the war, he at the same time felt hostility towards him because of his mother’s gossip.

Alexander was seen as a talented child from early childhood. Thanks to this, he was recognized very early as the heir to his father's business, and Olympias became the most influential of Philip's at least six wives. However, Alexander could be the only son of Philip worthy to accept his kingdom. The fact is that, according to ancient authors, his brother Philip (later known as Philip III Arrhidaeus) was weak-minded. Philip had no other reliably known sons, or at least none of them were ready to rule his father's kingdom by 336.

From early childhood, Alexander was prepared for diplomacy, politics, and war. Although Alexander was born in Pella, he, along with other noble youths, was educated in Mieza not far from the city. The choice of a place remote from the capital was probably due to the desire to remove the child from the mother. Alexander's educators and mentors were: his maternal relative Leonid, to whom he retained deep affection in adulthood, despite a strict Spartan upbringing in childhood; jester and actor Lysimachus; and from 343 BC. e. - the great philosopher Aristotle. The choice of him as a mentor was not accidental - Aristotle was close to the Macedonian royal house, and was also well acquainted with Hermias, the tyrant of Atarneus, who maintained friendly relations with Philip. Under the guidance of Aristotle, who emphasized the study of ethics and politics, Alexander received a classical Greek education and was also instilled with a love of medicine, philosophy and literature. Although all Greeks read the classic works of Homer, Alexander studied the Iliad especially diligently, since his mother traced her origins to the main character of this epic, Achilles. Subsequently, he often re-read this work. It is also known from sources that Alexander had a good knowledge of “Anabasis” by Xenophon, Euripides, as well as the poets Pindar, Stesichorus, Telestus, Philoxenus and others.

Youth

Even in his childhood, Alexander differed from his peers: he was indifferent to bodily joys and indulged in them very moderately; Alexander's ambition was boundless. He showed no interest in women (see article about Callixenes), but at the age of 10 he tamed Bucephalus, a stallion, because of whose obstinacy King Philip refused to take him. Plutarch on the character of Alexander:

“Philip saw that Alexander was stubborn by nature, and when he got angry, he did not yield to any violence, but with a reasonable word he could easily be persuaded to make the right decision; That’s why my father tried to convince more than to command.”

At the age of 16, Alexander remained with the king in Macedonia under the supervision of the general Antipater, when Philip was besieging Byzantium. Having led the troops remaining in Macedonia, he suppressed the uprising of the Thracian tribe of the Medes and created the city of Alexandropol on the site of the Thracian settlement (by analogy with Philippopolis, which his father named in his honor). And 2 years later in 338 BC. e. At the Battle of Chaeronea, Alexander showed personal courage and skills as a commander, leading the left wing of the Macedonian army under the supervision of experienced military leaders.

Alexander demonstrated his penchant for adventure in his youth, when, without his father’s will, he wanted to marry the daughter of Pixodarus, the ruler of Caria (see article Philip III Arrhidaeus). Later, he seriously quarreled with his father because of the latter’s marriage to the young noble Cleopatra, which resulted in a breakdown in relations between Philip and Olympias, whom Alexander sincerely loved. Philip's wedding to a noble Macedonian woman may have been organized by part of the local aristocracy. Many noble Macedonians did not want to accept the fact that Philip’s heir would be the son of a foreigner, who, moreover, was under her strong influence. After this, Olympias attempted to overthrow Philip with the help of her brother Alexander of Molossus, the ruler of Epirus. However, Philip learned about Olympias's plans and invited the king of Epirus to marry Cleopatra, the sister of his heir Alexander, and he agreed. By the time of Cleopatra's wedding, the future conqueror had reconciled with his father and returned to Macedonia.

During the wedding celebrations in 336 BC. e. Philip was killed by his bodyguard Pausanias. The circumstances of the murder are not entirely clear, and the possibility of participation in the conspiracy by various interested parties who became Philip's enemies as a result of his aggressive policies is often pointed out. Pausanias himself was captured and immediately killed by people from Alexander’s retinue, which is sometimes interpreted as the desire of the future king to hide the true orderer of the attack. The Macedonian army, which knew Alexander well and had seen him in battle, proclaimed him king (probably at the direction of Antipater). However, of all Philip’s children, only Alexander was worthy of occupying the throne (see above).

Ascension to the throne

Upon ascending the throne, Alexander first dealt with the alleged participants in the conspiracy against his father and, according to Macedonian tradition, with other possible rivals. As a rule, they were accused of conspiracy and actions on behalf of Persia - for this, for example, two princes from the Lyncestid dynasty (Arrabai and Heromen), representing Upper Macedonia and laying claim to the Macedonian throne, were executed. However, the third of the Lyncestides was the son-in-law of Antipater, and therefore Alexander brought him closer to him. At the same time, he executed his cousin Aminta and left his half-sister Kinana a widow. Amyntas represented the "senior" line of the Argeads (from Perdiccas III) and nominally ruled Macedonia for a time in its infancy until he was removed by his guardian Philip II. Finally, Alexander decided to eliminate the popular commander Attalus - he was accused of treason and negotiations with Athenian politicians. Alexander attracted the nobility and the Macedonian people to his side by abolishing taxes. Moreover, after the reign of Philip, the treasury was practically empty, and debts reached 500 talents.

At the news of Philip's death, many of his enemies tried to take advantage of the difficult situation that had arisen. Thus, the Thracian and Illyrian tribes rebelled, opponents of Macedonian rule became more active in Athens, and Thebes and some other Greek city-states tried to expel the garrisons left by Philip and weaken the influence of Macedonia. However, Alexander took the initiative into his own hands. As Philip's successor, he organized a congress in Corinth, at which the previously concluded agreement with the Greeks was confirmed. The agreement declared the full sovereignty of the Greek city states, their independent decision of internal affairs, and the right to withdraw from the agreement. To guide the foreign policy of the Greek states, a general council was created and the “position” of a Hellenic hegemon with military powers was introduced. The Greeks made concessions, and many policies admitted Macedonian garrisons (this, in particular, was what Thebes did).

In Corinth, Alexander met the Cynic philosopher Diogenes. According to legend, the king invited Diogenes to ask him for whatever he wanted, and the philosopher replied, “Don’t block the sun for me.” Soon Alexander visited Delphi, but they refused to receive him there, citing non-public days. But the king found a Pythia (soothsayer) and demanded that she predict his fate, and she exclaimed in response, “You are invincible, my son!”

March to the north and conquest of Thebes (335 BC)

Having a still calm Greece behind him, eyeing a new king, in the spring of 335 BC. e. set out on a campaign against the rebel Illyrians and Thracians. According to modern estimates, no more than 15,000 soldiers went on the northern campaign, and almost all of them were Macedonians. First, Alexander defeated the Thracians in the battle of Mount Emon (Shipka): the barbarians set up a camp of carts on a hill and hoped to put the Macedonians to flight by derailing their carts; Alexander ordered his soldiers to avoid the carts in an organized manner. During the battle, the Macedonians captured many of the women and children whom the barbarians had left in the camp and transported them to Macedonia. Soon the king defeated the Tribal tribe, and their ruler Sirmus, along with most of his fellow tribesmen, took refuge on the island of Pevka on the Danube. Alexander, using the few ships that arrived from Byzantium, was unable to land on the island. As harvest time approached, Alexander's army could destroy all the Triballi's crops and try to force them to surrender before their supplies ran out. However, the king soon noticed that troops of the Getae tribe were gathering on the other side of the Danube. The Getae hoped that Alexander would not land on the shore occupied by soldiers, but the king, on the contrary, considered the appearance of the Getae a challenge to himself. Therefore, on homemade rafts, he crossed to the other side of the Danube, defeated the Getae and thereby deprived the ruler of the Triballi Sirmus of hope for a quick end to the war. It is possible that Alexander borrowed the organization of the crossing from Xenophon, who described the crossing of the Euphrates on homemade boats in his work Anabasis. Soon Alexander concluded alliance treaties with all the northern barbarians. According to legend, during the conclusion of treaties, the king asked the barbarian rulers who they feared most. All the leaders answered that they feared him, Alexander, more than anything in the world, and only the leader of a small Celtic tribe living in Greece said that he was most afraid if the sky suddenly fell to the ground.

However, while Alexander was settling matters in the north, in the south, at the end of summer, under the influence of a false rumor about the death of Alexander, a rebellion broke out in Thebes, the Greek city most affected by Philip. The inhabitants of Thebes called on all of Greece to revolt, but the Greeks, while verbally expressing solidarity with the Thebans, in fact preferred to observe the development of events.

The Athenian orator Demosthenes called Alexander a child, convincing his fellow citizens that he was not dangerous. The king, however, sent an answer that he would soon appear at the walls of Athens and prove that he was already a grown man. In the tense situation, Alexander did not waste time. With rapid marches, he transferred the army from Illyria to Thebes. The siege took several days. Before the storming of Thebes, Alexander repeatedly proposed peace negotiations and was refused.

At the end of September 335, the assault on the city began. Sources give various reasons for the defeat of the Thebans: Arrian believes that the Theban troops lost heart and could no longer restrain the Macedonians, while Diodorus believes that the main reason was the discovery by the Macedonians of an unprotected section of the city walls. In any case, Macedonian troops occupied the walls of the city, and the Macedonian garrison opened the gates and helped surround the Thebans. The city was captured by assault, plundered, and the entire population was enslaved (see article Siege of Thebes). With the proceeds (approximately 440 talents), Alexander fully or partially covered the debts of the Macedonian treasury. All of Greece was amazed both by the fate of the ancient city, one of the largest and strongest in Hellas, and by the quick victory of the Macedonian weapons. Residents of a number of cities themselves brought to trial politicians who called for a rebellion against Macedonian hegemony. Almost immediately after the capture of Thebes, Alexander headed back to Macedonia, where he began preparing for a campaign in Asia.

At this stage, Alexander’s military expeditions took the form of pacifying opponents of the Corinthian League and the Panhellenic idea of vengeance on the barbarians. Alexander justifies all his aggressive actions during the “Macedonian” period by an inextricable connection with the goals of the Pan-Hellenic Union. After all, it was the Corinthian Congress that formally sanctioned Alexander’s dominant status in Hellas.

Conquest of Asia Minor, Syria and Egypt (334-332 BC)

Having appointed Antipater as his governor in Europe and leaving him 12 thousand infantry and 1500 cavalry, in the early spring of 334 BC. e. Alexander, at the head of the united forces of Macedonia, the Greek city-states (except for Sparta, which refused to participate) and the allied Thracians, set out on a campaign against the Persians. The moment to start the campaign was chosen very well, since the Persian fleet was still in the ports of Asia Minor and could not prevent the army from crossing. In May, he crossed the Hellespont into Asia Minor in the area where the legendary Troy was located. According to legend, sailing to the other shore, Alexander threw a spear towards Asia, which symbolized that everything conquered would belong to the king.

The ancient historian Diodorus gives the composition of his troops, generally confirmed by other sources:

Infantry - a total of 32 thousand - 12 thousand Macedonians (9 thousand in the Macedonian phalanx and 3 thousand in the shield-bearing units), 7 thousand allies (from Greek cities), 5 thousand mercenaries (Greeks), 7 thousand barbarians (Thracians and Illyrians), 1 thousand archers and Agrians (Paeonian tribe in Thrace).
Cavalry - a total of 1500-1800 Macedonians (hetaira), 1800 Thessalians and 600 Greeks from other regions, 900 Thracians and Paeonians. That is, in total there were 5 thousand cavalry in Alexander’s army.

In addition, there were several thousand Macedonian soldiers in Asia Minor, who crossed there under Philip. Thus, the total number of Alexander's troops at the beginning of the campaign reached 50,000 soldiers. There were also many scientists and historians at Alexander’s headquarters - Alexander initially set himself research goals.

When Alexander's army found itself near the city of Lampsacus on the banks of the Hellespont, the townspeople sent the rhetorician Anaximenes, who taught Alexander oratory, to Alexander to ask him to save the city. Expecting sophisticated rhetorical tricks and requests from his teacher, Alexander exclaimed that he would not do anything that Anaximenes asked. However, the rhetorician asked him to capture and plunder his hometown, and the king had to keep his word - not to capture or plunder Lampsacus. Occupying the nearby town of Priapus, Alexander's soldiers were surprised to learn about the cult of the local deity of the same name, and soon his veneration spread throughout the Mediterranean.

The commander of the Greek mercenaries in the Persian service, Memnon, who was well acquainted with the Macedonian army (he fought against Philip’s troops sent to Asia Minor) and personally knew Alexander, recommended refraining from open clashes with Alexander’s army and suggested using scorched earth tactics. He also insisted on the need to actively use the fleet and to strike at Macedonia itself. However, the Persian satraps refused to listen to the advice of the Greek and decided to give battle to Alexander on the Granik River near Troy. In the Battle of Granicus, the satraps' detachments, mostly cavalry (numbering up to 20 thousand), were scattered, the Persian infantry fled, and the Greek hoplite mercenaries were surrounded and exterminated (2 thousand were taken prisoner).

Most cities in Asia Minor voluntarily opened their gates to the winner. Phrygia surrendered completely, and its satrap Atisius committed suicide. Soon, the commandant of the city of Sardis, Mithren, surrendered the city, despite the fact that it was perfectly fortified, and the citadel located on the mountain was practically impregnable. Thanks to this betrayal, Alexander gained one of the strongest fortresses in Asia Minor and the richest treasury without a fight. In gratitude, the king introduced Mithren into his inner circle, and soon appointed him satrap of Armenia. The residents of Ephesus also surrendered the city without a fight: before the arrival of Alexander, they overthrew the pro-Persian elite and restored democracy. In place of the Persian satraps, Alexander appointed Macedonians, Greeks, or, as in the case of Mithrenos, Persians personally loyal to him.

Shortly after arriving in Caria, Alexander was met by Ada, the former satrap of Caria, who had been removed from power by her brother Pixodarus. She surrendered to him the city of Alinda, where she lived after her removal, and said that Alexander was like a son to her. Sometimes this phrase, recorded by Arrian, is interpreted as legal adoption. For him, this became an opportunity to win over some of the Carians to his side - Ada still enjoyed authority among the local aristocracy.

In Caria, Alexander faced resistance from the cities of Miletus and Halicarnassus, where there were strong Persian garrisons, and where the troops of the satraps who survived the battle of Granicus accumulated. Alexander's entire fleet approached Miletus, with the help of which he crossed the Hellespont. However, within a few days a huge Persian fleet arrived at the city. Despite this, Alexander did not lift the siege of the city and rejected the offer of the Milesian oligarchy to open the city to both armies. This was probably due to the fact that the commandant of the city, Hegesistratus, conducted secret negotiations with Alexander about surrender and had already contributed to the occupation of the outer fortifications of the city by the Greeks. The very next morning, the Greeks, using siege engines, destroyed the walls of Miletus, after which troops broke into the city and captured it. In addition, the Greeks forced the Persian fleet to retreat because it did not have sufficient supplies of food and water. Soon the Persians returned, but after a small clash they again sailed from Miletus. After this, Alexander took an unexpected step and ordered the dissolution of almost his entire fleet. Modern historians see this decision of the king as one of the few mistakes he made.

Already near Halicarnassus, the king regretted his decision - the city was supplied from the sea, and since Alexander did not have the opportunity to block the supply channel, the army had to prepare for a deliberately difficult assault (see Siege of Halicarnassus). During 334 BC. e. and until the autumn of 333 BC. e. Alexander conquered all of Asia Minor.

Having barely left Asia Minor from Cilicia, Alexander encountered the Persian king Darius III in battle at Issami in November 333 BC. e. The terrain favored Alexander; a huge Persian army was squeezed into a narrow gorge between the sea and the mountains. The Battle of Issus ended with the complete defeat of Darius; he himself fled from the battlefield, leaving his family in the camp, which went to the Macedonians as a prize (see article by Statira). Macedonian troops captured part of the treasures of the Persian king and many noble captives in Damascus.

The victory at Issus opened the way to the south for the Macedonians. Alexander, skirting the Mediterranean coast, headed to Phenicia with the goal of conquering coastal cities and depriving the Persian fleet of bases. Peace terms twice proposed by Darius were rejected by Alexander. Of the cities of Phenicia, only the impregnable Tire, located on the island, refused to recognize the power of Alexander. However, in July 332 BC. e. after a 7-month siege, the impregnable fortress city fell after an assault from the sea (see the article Siege of Tire). With his fall, the Persian fleet in the Mediterranean ceased to exist, and Alexander could freely receive reinforcements by sea.

After Phenicia, Alexander continued his journey to Egypt through Palestine, where he was resisted by the city of Gaza, but it was also taken by storm after a 2-month siege (see article Siege of Gaza).

Egypt, whose armed forces were destroyed at the Battle of Issus, was surrendered by the satrap Mazak without any resistance. The local population welcomed him as a deliverer from the hated Persian yoke and willingly recognized his power. Alexander did not touch local customs and religious beliefs; in general, he preserved the system of governing Egypt, supporting it with Macedonian garrisons. Alexander stayed in Egypt for six months from December 332 BC. e. to May 331 BC e. There the king founded the city of Alexandria, which soon became one of the main cultural centers of the ancient world and the largest city in Egypt (currently the second largest city in Egypt). Also dating back to this time was his long and dangerous pilgrimage to the oracle of Zeus-Amon in the Siwa oasis in the Libyan desert. After meeting him, Alexander began to actively spread the rumor about himself that he was the son of the supreme god Zeus. (The ascension of the pharaoh to the throne has long been accompanied in Egypt by his sacralization; Alexander adopted this tradition).

Having strengthened himself sufficiently in the conquered territory, Alexander decided to delve into lands unknown to the Greeks, into the central regions of Asia, where the Persian king Darius managed to assemble a new huge army.

Defeat of the Persian Empire (331-330 BC)

Summer 331 BC e. Alexander crossed the Euphrates and Tigris rivers and found himself on the outskirts of Media, the heart of the Persian state. On a large plain (on the territory of modern Iraqi Kurdistan), specially prepared for the action of large masses of cavalry, King Darius was waiting for the Macedonians. October 1, 331 BC e. A grandiose battle took place at Gaugamela, during which the troops of the Persians and the peoples subject to them were defeated. King Darius, as in the previous battle, fled from the battlefield, although his troops were still fighting, and the outcome of the battle was not at all determined.

Alexander moved to the south, where ancient Babylon and Susa, one of the capitals of the Persian Empire, opened their gates to him. The Persian satraps, having lost faith in Darius, began to serve the king of Asia, as Alexander began to be called.

From Susa, Alexander headed through mountain passes to Persepolis, the center of the original Persian land. After an unsuccessful attempt to break out on the move, Alexander and part of his army bypassed the troops of the satrap of Persia, Ariobarzanes, and in January 330 BC. e. Persepolis fell. The Macedonian army rested in the city until the end of spring, and before leaving, the palace of the Persian kings was burned. According to the famous legend, the fire was organized by the hetaera Thais of Athens, the mistress of the military leader Ptolemy, inciting the drunken company of Alexander and his friends.

In May 330 BC. e. Alexander resumed his pursuit of Darius, first in Media and then in Parthia. In July 330 BC. e. King Darius was killed as a result of a conspiracy by his military leaders. The Bactrian satrap Bessus, who killed Darius, named himself the new king of the Persian Empire under the name Artaxerxes. Bess tried to organize resistance in the eastern satrapies, but was captured by his comrades, handed over to Alexander and executed by him in June 329 BC. e.

King of Asia

Having become the ruler of Asia, Alexander stopped looking at the Persians as a conquered people, tried to equalize the victors with the vanquished and combine their customs into a single whole. The measures taken by Alexander initially concerned external forms such as oriental clothing, a harem, and Persian court ceremonies. However, he did not demand compliance with them from the Macedonians. Alexander tried to rule the Persians like their previous kings. In historiography, there is no consensus on the title of Alexander - by adopting the title “King of Asia,” the new king could either indicate the continuity of his state with the Achaemenid Empire, or, conversely, could emphasize the opposition of the new power and Persia, since he did not use such Achaemenid titles as “king of kings” and others.

The first complaints against Alexander appeared in the fall of 330 BC. e. The comrades-in-arms, accustomed to the simplicity of morals and friendly relations between the king and his subjects, silently grumbled, refusing to accept Eastern concepts, in particular proskynesis - prostration and kissing the king's feet. His closest friends and court flatterers followed Alexander without hesitation.

The Macedonian army was tired from a long campaign, the soldiers wanted to return home and did not share the goals of their king to become the master of the whole world. At the end of 330 BC. e. a conspiracy against Alexander by several ordinary soldiers was discovered (only 2 participants are known). However, the consequences of the unsuccessful conspiracy were more than serious due to the inter-clan struggle within Alexander’s entourage. One of the leading commanders, the commander of the hetaira Filota, was accused of passive complicity (knew, but did not inform). Even under torture, Filota did not admit to evil intent, but was executed by soldiers at a meeting. Philotas' father, the general Parmenion, was killed without trial or any proof of guilt due to Alexander's increased suspicion. Less significant officers, who were also suspected, were acquitted.

Summer 327 BC e. the “conspiracy of pages”, noble young men under the Macedonian king, was discovered. In addition to the direct culprits, Callisthenes, a historian and philosopher, who alone dared to object to the king and openly criticize the new court orders, was also executed. The death of the philosopher was a logical consequence of the development of Alexander's despotic inclinations. This tendency was especially clearly manifested in the death of Cleitus the Black, the commander of the royal bodyguards, whom Alexander personally killed as a result of a drunken quarrel in the fall of 328 BC. e. The increasing frequency of information about conspiracies is associated with Alexander’s worsening paranoia.

Campaign in Central Asia (329-327 BC)

After the death of Darius III, local rulers in the eastern satrapies of the collapsed Persian Empire felt independent and were in no hurry to swear allegiance to the new monarch. Alexander, dreaming of becoming king of the entire civilized world, found himself involved in a three-year military campaign in Central Asia (329 -327 BC).

It was predominantly a guerrilla war rather than a battle between armies. The Battle of Polytimetus can be noted. This was the first and only victory over the troops of the commanders of Alexander the Great in the entire history of his campaign to the East. Local tribes acted in raids and retreats, uprisings broke out in different places, and Macedonian troops sent by Alexander destroyed entire villages in retaliation. The fighting took place in Bactria and Sogdiana, on the territory of modern Afghanistan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan.

In Sogdiana, Alexander defeated the Scythians. To do this, he had to cross the Yaxartes River. The Macedonian troops did not go further north; the places there were deserted and, according to the Greeks, sparsely inhabited. In the mountains of Sogdiana and Bactria, the local population, when the Macedonians approached, hid in inaccessible mountain fortresses, but Alexander managed to capture them, if not by storm, then by cunning and perseverance (see the article Alexander’s Mountain War). The king's troops brutally dealt with the rebellious local population, which led to the devastation of Central Asia.

In Sogdiana, Alexander founded the city of Alexandria Eskhata (Greek Αλεξάνδρεια Εσχάτη - Extreme Alexandria) (modern Khujand), currently the second largest city in Tajikistan. In Bactria, on ancient ruins, he founded the city of Alexandria in Arachosia (modern Kandahar), currently the second largest city in Afghanistan. There in Bactria in the winter of 328/327 BC. e. or in the summer of 327 BC. e. Alexander married Roxana, the daughter of a local nobleman (possibly a satrap) Oxyartes. Although ancient authors generally assumed that the marriage was for love, this union made it possible to attract the local aristocracy to the side of the king. After the wedding, which consolidated Macedonian dominance in Bactria and Sogdiana, the king began preparations for a campaign in India.

Campaign to India (326-325 BC)

In the spring of 326 BC. e. Alexander invaded the lands of the Indian peoples from Bactria through the Khyber Pass, conquered a number of tribes, crossed the Indus River and came into the possession of King Abha of Taxila (the Greeks called the king “the man from Taxila,” that is, Taxila) in the territory of what is now Pakistan. The main combat operations of the Macedonian troops took place in the Punjab region, the “five rivers” - a fertile region in the basin of the five eastern tributaries of the Indus.

Taxilus swore allegiance to Alexander, hoping with his help to defeat his rival, King Porus of eastern Punjab. Porus placed an army and 200 elephants on the borders of his land, and in July 326 BC. e. A battle took place on the Hydaspes River, in which Porus' army was defeated and he himself was captured. Unexpectedly for Taxila, Alexander left Porus as king, and even expanded his domain. This was Alexander’s usual policy in the conquered lands: to make the conquered rulers dependent on himself, while trying to maintain a counterbalance to them in the person of other appanage rulers.

Late summer 326 BC. e. Alexander's advance to the east stopped. On the banks of the Bias River (a tributary of the Indus), the Macedonian army refused to further follow the king due to fatigue from the long campaign and endless battles. The immediate cause was rumors of huge armies with thousands of elephants beyond the Ganges. Alexander had no choice but to turn the army south. When retreating to Persia, he planned to seize other lands.

From about November 326 BC. e. The Macedonian army floats down the Hydaspes and Indus rivers for seven months, making forays along the way and conquering the surrounding tribes. In one of the battles for the city of Mallov (January 325 BC), Alexander was seriously wounded by an arrow in the chest (see Assault on the city of Mallov). Irritated by the opposition and courage of the peoples of India, Alexander exterminates entire tribes, unable to stay here for a long time to bring them to submission.

Alexander sent part of the Macedonian army under Craterus to Persia, and with the rest reached the Indian Ocean.

Summer 325 BC e. Alexander moved from the mouth of the Indus to Persia along the ocean coast. The return home through the deserts of Gedrosia, one of the coastal satrapies, turned out to be more difficult than the battles - many Macedonians died on the road from the heat and thirst.

Alexander's last years

In March 324 BC. e. Alexander entered the city of Susa (in the south of Iran), where he and his army indulged in rest after a 10-year military campaign. Having secured dominion over the conquered lands, Alexander began the final organization of his fragile empire. First of all, he dealt with the local satraps and executed many for poor governance.

One of his steps towards creating a unified state from subjects of diverse cultural backgrounds was a grand wedding at which he married Stateira, the eldest daughter of King Darius, captured after the Battle of Issus, and Parisat, daughter of the Persian king Artaxerxes III. Alexander also gifted his friends with wives from noble Persian families. And in total, according to Arrian, up to 10 thousand Macedonians took local wives, all of them received gifts from the king.

A serious reform took place in the army: a phalanx of 30 thousand young men from Asian peoples was prepared and trained according to the Macedonian model. Local aristocrats were even enrolled in the elite cavalry of the hetaira. The Macedonians' unrest resulted in open rebellion in August 324 BC. e., when ordinary soldiers accused the king of almost treason. Having executed 13 instigators and pointedly ignoring the soldiers, Alexander forced the army, which could no longer imagine any other commander other than Alexander, into obedience.

In February 323 BC. e. Alexander stopped in Babylon, where he began to plan new wars of conquest. The immediate goal was the Arab tribes of the Arabian Peninsula; an expedition against Carthage was visible in the future. While the fleet is being prepared, Alexander builds harbors and canals, forms troops from recruits, and receives embassies.

Death of Alexander

5 days before the start of the campaign against the Arabs, Alexander fell ill. From June 7, Alexander could no longer speak. After 10 days of severe fever, June 10 or 13, 323 BC. e. Alexander the Great died in Babylon at the age of 32, just over a month short of his 33rd birthday and leaving no instructions on his heirs.

In modern historiography, the generally accepted version is that the king died naturally. However, the cause of his death has not yet been reliably established. The version most often put forward is about death from malaria. According to this version, the king’s body, weakened by daily attacks of malaria, was unable to resist two diseases at once; the second disease was either pneumonia or transient leukemia (bleeding) caused by malaria. According to another version, Alexander fell ill with West Nile fever. There have also been suggestions that Alexander could have died from leishmaniasis or cancer. However, the fact that none of his dining companions fell ill reduces the plausibility of the version of an infectious disease. Historians pay attention to Alexander’s drinking bouts with generals that became more frequent towards the end of his conquests, which could have undermined his health. There is also a version that the king overdosed on poisonous hellebore, which was used as a laxative. According to the modern opinion of British toxicologists, the symptoms of the disease from which Alexander died - prolonged vomiting, convulsions, muscle weakness and slow pulse - indicate his poisoning with a drug made from a plant called White hellebore (lat. veratrum album) - a poisonous plant used by Greek doctors for medical purposes. Greek doctors gave a drink made from white hellebore with honey to drive out evil spirits and induce vomiting. Finally, even in antiquity, versions appeared about the poisoning of the king by Antipater, whom Alexander was going to remove from the post of governor of Macedonia, but no evidence of this appeared.

More detailed information about the biography of Alexander the Great can be obtained from the articles listed below - in the block “More on the topic...”

Alexander the Great - the greatest conqueror of all time, the son of King Philip II and Olympias, daughter of the Epirus king Neoptolemus, was born in 356 BC, died in 323. Alexander's tutor from the age of 13 was Aristotle, who awakened in his pupil that idea of greatness, that strength and rigor of thinking that ennobled the manifestations of Alexander's passionate nature, and taught him to show strength moderately and consciously. Alexander treated his teacher with the greatest respect; he often said that he owed his life to his father, and to Aristotle that he lived with dignity. The ideal of Alexander the Great was the hero of the Trojan War, Achilles. Full of energy and desire for action, Alexander often complained during his father’s victories that he would not leave anything for him to do. In gymnastics and other competitions, Alexander had no equal; While still a boy, he tamed the wild horse Bucephalus, who later served as his war horse. The Battle of Chaeronea (338) was won thanks to Alexander's personal bravery.

Philip II was proud of his son and saw in him the fulfillment of his wildest assumptions and hopes. Subsequently, however, Philip's removal of Alexander's mother, his marriage to Cleopatra and a whole series of humiliations experienced by Alexander himself disrupted the good relationship between father and son; rumor even attributed to Alexander participation in the murder of Philip. At the very moment of Alexander’s accession to the throne (in the fall of 336), he had to endure a struggle with the conspiracy of Attalus, Cleopatra’s uncle, who wanted to elevate the latter’s son to the throne, and with the Greeks, who were preparing an uprising against Macedonian hegemony. Attalus, Cleopatra and her son were killed, and Alexander hastily launched a campaign against the Greeks in Thessaly, passed Thermopylae and entered Thebes. The Athenians asked for peace, which was granted to them and all the Greeks by Alexander. The envoys of the Greek cities gathered in Corinth, where Alexander, among other things, met with Diogenes and where the general war against Persia was decided, and Alexander the Great was recognized as the supreme leader of all Hellenes; Only the Spartans refused to join the alliance.

After the death of Darius, all the peoples of Persia looked to Alexander the Great as their rightful ruler. Only the northeastern provinces continued to resist, and Alexander, having occupied Hyrcania and marched along the Caspian Sea to Zadrakarta (present-day Astrabad), headed to Bactria, where he gathered his army and took the title of king Bess. The uprising in Aria, however, forced Alexander to deviate to the south. Having suppressed the uprising and founded a city here, Alexander decided, in order to cut off Bess’s path to the south, to occupy Arachosia and Drangiana, which he succeeded without much difficulty. The luxury with which he surrounded himself here, unusual for the old soldiers of Alexander the Great, and the lack of any advantages for the Macedonians in comparison with Asian subjects, caused displeasure in Alexander’s army. In the fall of 330, a conspiracy was discovered, after the discovery of which Alexander ordered the murder of the old commander Philip, Parmenion, whose son Philotas was suspected of participating in the conspiracy. Despite the extreme cold, Alexander moved from Arachosia, where he also founded Alexandria, to Bactria, crossing the snow-covered mountain passes of the Hindu Kush. Bessus cleared Bactria without resistance. Alexander the Great then occupied Marakanda (Samarkand) and moved forward to Cyropol, and he had to overcome a new uprising that engulfed many provinces; At this time, Alexander also made his famous campaign in the country of the Scythians. Alexander then set up his luxurious court in Maracanda and celebrated his marriage to Roxana with great pomp. Alexander showed more and more traits of an oriental despot. Previously, Cleitus, who saved his life, was killed by Alexander during a dispute, and Aristotle’s nephew and student Callisthenes and two noble young men were executed for refusing to perform the rite of kneeling before Alexander.

The desire to bring satisfaction to the army dissatisfied with innovations with new successes forced Alexander the Great to undertake a campaign to India, which he began at the end of 327 with an army of 120 thousand. After a series of bloody battles and victories, Alexander reached the Indus in the spring of 326, then won a victory and captured King Porus at the Hydaspes River, on the western bank of which he founded the city of Bucephala, and on the eastern bank Nicaea, but then the exhausted troops refused to go forward to Ganga; Unfavorable predictions from the priests added to this, and Alexander began a retreat down the Hydaspes in the fall of 326, with the command of three parts of the fleet entrusted to Nearchus, Craterus and Hephaestion.

Alexander the Great and King Porus

Almost all the tribes encountered along the way submitted without resistance; only one Mallov tribe offered resistance, and during the assault on their fortified city, Alexander was seriously wounded. Alexander descended all the way to the Indian Ocean, won a number of victories along the way, made an extremely difficult 60-day journey through the desert to the main city of Gedrosia - Pura, and then went to Karamania, where Craterus and Nearchus joined him. Nearchus continued his journey along the shore of the Persian Gulf to the mouths of the Tigris and Euphrates, and Hephaestion with most of the army headed to Persida (present-day Fars). Alexander himself went through Pasargadae and Persepolis to Susa, where the abuses of his governors required his intervention and received severe retribution.

The fusion of East and West now seemed to be achieved, and in order to establish it even more firmly, Alexander the Great took Statira, the eldest daughter of Darius, as his wife; He also married up to 80 people close to him and up to 100 other Macedonians to Persian women. Alexander's equal treatment of the barbarian and Macedonian troops again caused outrage, which was suppressed by Alexander's personal intervention. Having conquered and almost destroyed the wild tribe of the Cossians, Alexander returned to Babylon, where he diligently patronized the trade of laying roads, constructing harbors and cities. He was especially interested in the project to colonize the eastern coast of the Persian Gulf and, having circumnavigated Arabia, to establish direct trade relations by sea between Egypt and the Euphrates region. The day had already been appointed for the departure of the fleet, but Alexander, after a farewell feast given by Nearchus, who was leaving at the head of the fleet, fell ill with a fever, which gradually became more and more dangerous; in June 323, Alexander the Great died at the age of 32. Two years later, Alexander’s embalmed corpse was transported by Ptolemy to Egypt and buried in Memphis, and then transferred to Alexandria, to a temple specially built for this purpose. Now, after the death of Alexander, who left no successor, discord began between his generals, and the empire of Alexander the Great fell apart. His conquests, however, had the consequence that Western Asia, previously cut off from the influence of Greek culture, merged with the Greek world, taking on many features of Hellenic civilization. The subsequent historical period is therefore called the Hellenistic era.

State of Alexander the Great

Of the extremely numerous artistic depictions of Alexander, very few have reached us. The bust with an inscription found in 1779 near Tivoli, located in the Louvre, is considered to most accurately convey Alexander’s appearance. A marble statue of Alexander in his youth is kept in the Munich Glyptothek, and a similar marble head in the British Museum; a bronze statue of Alexander in full robes found in Herculaneum. The name of Alexander is associated with the famous marble bust in Florence, the so-called “Dying Alexander” (actually an image of a giant) and the largest surviving mosaic of antiquity. Of the works of art dedicated to Alexander, the works of modern times are the most famous: the frescoes of Sodom in the Villa Farnesine in Rome, “The Wedding of Alexander with Roxana,” Thorvaldsen’s relief depicting Alexander’s entry into Babylon and “The Death of Alexander” by Piloti, in the Berlin National Gallery.

Sodom. Wedding of Alexander the Great and Roxana. Villa Farnesina, Rome. OK. 1517

The lives of Alexander the Great, compiled by his collaborators Callisthenes, Anaximenes, Clitarchus and others, and based on these not entirely reliable sources, the story of Diodorus and Trogus Pompey, as well as the biographies of Plutarch and Arriana, provide more or less reliable information about the military activities of Alexander the Great. We do not have any materials to judge his ideas and goals, political organizations and projects. The personality of Alexander already in ancient times, but especially among medieval poets of the East and West, became a favorite subject of legendary tales. The literature about Alexander the Great is very extensive.

Alexander the Great (Alexander III the Great, ancient Greek Ἀλέξανδρος Γ" ὁ Μέγας, lat. Alexander III Magnus, among Muslim peoples Iskander Zulkarnain, presumably July 20, 356 - June 10, 323 BC) - Macedonian king with 336 BC from the Argead dynasty, commander, creator of a world power that collapsed after his death. In Western historiography, better known as Alexander the Great. Even in Antiquity, Alexander gained the reputation of one of the greatest commanders in history.

Alexander was born in July, 356, Pella (Macedonia). The son of the Macedonian king Philip II and Queen Olympias, the future king received an excellent education for his time; Aristotle was his teacher from the age of 13. Alexander's favorite reading was the heroic poems of Homer. He underwent military training under the guidance of his father.

Already in his youth, Macedonsky demonstrated exceptional abilities in the art of military leadership. In 338, Alexander's personal participation in the Battle of Chaeronea largely decided the outcome of the battle in favor of the Macedonians.

The youth of the heir to the Macedonian throne was overshadowed by the divorce of his parents. Philip's remarriage to another woman (Cleopatra) became the cause of Alexander's quarrel with his father. After the mysterious murder of King Philip in June 336 BC. e. 20-year-old Alexander was enthroned.

The main task of the young king was to prepare for a military campaign in Persia. Alexander inherited from Philip the strongest army of Ancient Greece, but he understood that defeating the huge Achaemenid power would require the efforts of all of Hellas. He managed to create a Pan-Hellenic (pan-Greek) union and form a united Greek-Macedonian army.

The elite of the army consisted of the king's bodyguards (hypaspists) and the Macedonian royal guard. The basis of the cavalry were horsemen from Thessaly. The foot soldiers wore heavy bronze armor, their main weapon was the Macedonian spear - the sarissa. Alexander improved his father's fighting tactics. He began to build the Macedonian phalanx at an angle; this formation made it possible to concentrate forces to attack the enemy’s right flank, traditionally weak in the armies of the ancient world. In addition to the heavy infantry, the army had a considerable number of lightly armed auxiliary detachments from different cities of Greece. The total number of infantry was 30 thousand people, cavalry - 5 thousand. Despite the relatively small number, the Greek-Macedonian army was well trained and armed.

In 334, the army of the Macedonian king crossed the Hellespont (modern Dardanelles), and a war began under the slogan of revenge on the Persians for the desecrated Greek shrines of Asia Minor. At the first stage of hostilities, Alexander the Great was opposed by the Persian satraps who ruled Asia Minor. Their 60,000-strong army was defeated in 333 at the Battle of the Granik River, after which the Greek cities of Asia Minor were liberated. However, the Achaemenid state possessed enormous human and material resources. King Darius III, having gathered the best troops from all over his country, moved towards Alexander, but in the decisive battle of Issus near the border of Syria and Cilicia (the area of modern Iskanderun, Turkey), his 100,000-strong army was defeated, and he himself barely escaped.

Alexander the Great decided to take advantage of the fruits of his victory and continued his campaign. The successful siege of Tire opened the way for him to Egypt, and in the winter of 332-331 the Greco-Macedonian phalanxes entered the Nile Valley. The population of the countries enslaved by the Persians perceived the Macedonians as liberators. To maintain stable power in the captured lands, Alexander took an extraordinary step - declaring himself the son of the Egyptian god Ammon, who was identified by the Greeks with Zeus, he became the legitimate ruler (pharaoh) in the eyes of the Egyptians.

Another way to strengthen power in conquered countries was the resettlement of Greeks and Macedonians, which contributed to the spread of the Greek language and culture over vast territories. Alexander specifically founded new cities for the settlers, usually bearing his name. The most famous of them is Alexandria (Egyptian).

After carrying out financial reform in Egypt, Macedonian continued his campaign to the East. The Greco-Macedonian army invaded Mesopotamia. Darius III, gathering all possible forces, tried to stop Alexander, but to no avail; On October 1, 331, the Persians were finally defeated at the Battle of Gaugamela (near modern Irbil, Iraq). The winners occupied the ancestral Persian lands, the cities of Babylon, Susa, Persepolis, and Ecbatana. Darius III fled, but was soon killed by Bessus, satrap of Bactria; Alexander ordered the last Persian ruler to be buried with royal honors in Persepolis. The Achaemenid state ceased to exist.

Alexander was proclaimed "King of Asia". After occupying Ecbatana, he sent home all the Greek allies who wanted it. In his state, he planned to create a new ruling class from Macedonians and Persians, and sought to attract the local nobility to his side, which caused discontent among his comrades. In 330, the oldest military leader Parmenion and his son, the chief of cavalry Philotas, were executed, accused of involvement in a conspiracy against Alexander.

Having crossed the eastern Iranian regions, the army of Alexander the Great invaded Central Asia (Bactria and Sogdiana), the local population of which, led by Spitamen, put up fierce resistance; it was only suppressed after the death of Spitamenes in 328. Alexander tried to observe local customs, wore Persian royal clothes, and married the Bactrian Roxana. However, his attempt to introduce Persian court ceremonial (in particular, prostrating before the king) met with the rejection of the Greeks. Alexander mercilessly dealt with the dissatisfied. His foster brother Cleitus, who dared to disobey him, was immediately killed.

After the Greco-Macedonian troops entered the Indus Valley, the Battle of Hydaspes took place between them and the soldiers of the Indian king Porus (326). The Indians were defeated. Pursuing them, the Macedonian army descended down the Indus to the Indian Ocean (325). The Indus Valley was annexed to Alexander's empire. The exhaustion of the troops and the outbreak of rebellions among them forced Alexander to turn west.

Returning to Babylon, which became his permanent residence, Alexander continued the policy of uniting the multilingual population of his state and rapprochement with the Persian nobility, which he attracted to govern the state. He arranged mass weddings of Macedonians with Persian women, and he himself married (in addition to Roxana) two Persian women at the same time - Statira (daughter of Darius) and Parysatis.

Alexander was preparing to conquer Arabia and North Africa, but this was prevented by his sudden death from malaria on June 13, 323 BC. e., in Babylon. His body, taken to Alexandria Egypt by Ptolemy (one of the great commander’s associates), was placed in a golden coffin. Alexander's newborn son and his half-brother Arrhidaeus were proclaimed the new kings of the huge power. In fact, the empire began to be controlled by Alexander's military leaders - the Diadochi, who soon began a war to divide the state among themselves. The political and economic unity that Alexander the Great sought to create in the occupied lands was fragile, but Greek influence in the East turned out to be very fruitful and led to the formation of the Hellenistic culture.

The personality of Alexander the Great was extremely popular both among European peoples and in the East, where he is known under the name Iskander Zulkarnain (or Iskandar Zulkarnain, which means Alexander the Two-horned).