History of the Etruscans. Origin of the Etruscan people

Etruscans on the Apennine Peninsula The name of this people, accepted in historical science, was taken from Roman authors. Latin writers called this people “Etruscans” or “Tusci”, as well as Lydians, Greek writers called them “Tyrrenians” or “Tyrsenians”, but they themselves were Etruscans

The Etruscans are considered the creators of the first developed civilization on the Apennine Peninsula, whose achievements, long before the Roman Republic, included large cities with remarkable architecture, beautiful metalwork, ceramics, painting and sculpture, extensive drainage and irrigation systems, an alphabet, and later minting of coins. Perhaps the Etruscans were newcomers from across the sea; their first settlements in Italy were prosperous communities located in the central part of its western coast, in an area called Etruria (roughly the territory of modern Tuscany and Lazio). The ancient Greeks knew the Etruscans under the name Tyrrhenians (or Tyrseni), and the part of the Mediterranean Sea between the Apennine Peninsula and the islands of Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica was (and is now called) the Tyrrhenian Sea, since Etruscan sailors dominated here for several centuries. The Romans called the Etruscans Tuscans (hence modern Tuscany) or Etruscans, while the Etruscans themselves called themselves Rasna or Rasenna. During the era of their greatest power, ca. 7th–5th centuries BC, the Etruscans extended their influence over a large part of the Apennine Peninsula, right up to the foot of the Alps in the north and the outskirts of Naples in the south. Rome also submitted to them. Everywhere their dominance brought with it material prosperity, large-scale engineering projects and achievements in the field of architecture. According to tradition, Etruria had a confederation of twelve major city-states, united in a religious and political union. These almost certainly included Caere (modern Cerveteri), Tarquinia (modern Tarquinia), Vetulonia, Veii and Volaterr (modern Volterra) - all directly on or near the coast, as well as Perusia (modern Perugia), Cortona, Volsinia (modern Orvieto) and Arretium (modern Arezzo) in the interior of the country. Other important cities include Vulci, Clusium (modern Chiusi), Falerii, Populonia, Rusella and Fiesole.

ORIGIN, HISTORY AND CULTURE

Origin.

The earliest mention of the Etruscans we find in Homeric hymns(Hymn to Dionysus, 8), which tells how this god was once captured by Tyrrhenian pirates. Hesiod in Theogony(1016) mentions “the glory of the crowned Tyrrhenians,” and Pindar (1st Pythian Ode, 72) speaks of the war cry of the Tyrrhenians. Who were these famous pirates, apparently widely known to the ancient world? Since the time of Herodotus (5th century BC), the problem of their origin has occupied the minds of historians, archaeologists and amateurs. The first theory defending the Lydian, or eastern, origin of the Etruscans goes back to Herodotus (I 94). He writes that during the reign of Atis, a severe famine broke out in Lydia, and half the population was forced to leave the country in search of food and a new place to live. They went to Smyrna, built ships there and, passing through many port cities of the Mediterranean, eventually settled among the Ombrics in Italy. There the Lydians changed their name, calling themselves Tyrrhenians in honor of their leader Tyrrhenes, the son of the king. The second theory also has its roots in antiquity. Dionysius of Halicarnassus, an Augustan rhetorician, disputes Herodotus, arguing ( Roman antiquities, I 30), that the Etruscans were not settlers, but a local and most ancient people, different from all their neighbors on the Apennine Peninsula both in language and customs. The third theory, formulated by N. Frere in the 18th century, but still has supporters, defends the northern origin of the Etruscans. According to it, the Etruscans, along with other Italic tribes, penetrated into Italian territory through the Alpine passes. Archaeological data apparently speaks in favor of the first version of the origin of the Etruscans. However, Herodotus's story should be approached with caution. Of course, the Lydian pirate aliens did not populate the Tyrrhenian coast all at once, but rather moved here in several waves. From about the middle of the 8th century. BC. the Villanova culture (whose bearers were here earlier) underwent changes under clear Eastern influence. However, the local element was strong enough to have a significant impact on the process of formation of the new people. This allows us to reconcile the messages of Herodotus and Dionysius.

Story.

Arriving in Italy, the newcomers occupied the lands north of the Tiber River along the western coast of the peninsula and founded stone-walled settlements, each of which became an independent city-state. There were not many Etruscans themselves, but their superiority in weapons and military organization allowed them to conquer the local population. Having abandoned piracy, they established profitable trade with the Phoenicians, Greeks and Egyptians and were actively involved in the production of ceramics, terracotta and metal products. Under their management, thanks to the efficient use of labor and the development of drainage systems, agriculture was significantly improved here.

From the beginning of the 7th century. BC. The Etruscans began to expand their political influence in a southern direction: the Etruscan kings ruled Rome, and their sphere of influence extended to the Greek colonies of Campania. The concerted actions of the Etruscans and Carthaginians at this time, in practice, significantly impeded Greek colonization in the western Mediterranean. However, after 500 BC. their influence began to wane; OK. 474 BC The Greeks inflicted a major defeat on them, and a little later they began to feel the pressure of the Gauls on their northern borders. At the very beginning of the 4th century. BC. wars with the Romans and a powerful Gallic invasion of the peninsula forever undermined the power of the Etruscans. Gradually they were absorbed by the expanding Roman state and disappeared into it.

Political and social institutions.

The political and religious center of the traditional confederation of twelve Etruscan cities, each ruled by a lucumo, was their common sanctuary of Fanum Voltumnae near modern Bolsena. Apparently the lucumon of each city was elected by the local aristocracy, but it is unknown who held power in the federation.

The royal powers and prerogatives were disputed from time to time by the nobility. For example, by the end of the 6th century. BC. The Etruscan monarchy in Rome was overthrown and replaced by a republic. State structures did not undergo radical changes, except that the institution of annually elected magistrates was created. Even the title of king (lucumo) was preserved, although it had lost its former political content and was inherited by a minor official who performed priestly duties (rex sacrificulus).

The main weakness of the Etruscan alliance was, as in the case of the Greek city-states, its lack of cohesion and inability to resist with a united front both Roman expansion in the south and Gallic invasion in the north.

During the period of Etruscan political dominance in Italy, their aristocracy owned many slaves who were used as servants and in agricultural work. The economic core of the state was the middle class of artisans and traders. Family ties were strong, with each clan proud of its traditions and jealously guarding them. The Roman custom, according to which all members of the clan received a common (family) name, most likely dates back to Etruscan society. Even during the period of decline of the state, the scions of Etruscan families were proud of their pedigrees. Maecenas, friend and adviser to Augustus, could boast of descent from the Etruscan kings: his royal ancestors were Lukomons of the city of Arretium.

In Etruscan society, women led a completely independent life. Sometimes even the pedigree was traced through the female line. In contrast to Greek practice and in keeping with later Roman customs, Etruscan matrons and young girls of the aristocracy were often seen at public gatherings and public spectacles. The emancipated position of Etruscan women gave rise to Greek moralists of subsequent centuries to condemn the morals of the Tyrrhenians.

Religion.

Livy (V 1) describes the Etruscans as “a people more devoted than all others to their religious rites”; Arnobius, Christian apologist of the 4th century. AD, brands Etruria as the “mother of superstitions” ( Against the pagans, VII 26). The fact that the Etruscans were religious and superstitious is confirmed by literary evidence and monuments. The names of numerous gods, demigods, demons and heroes have been preserved, which are generally analogous to the Greek and Roman deities. Thus, the Roman triad of Jupiter, Juno and Minerva corresponded to the Etruscans Tin, Uni and Menva. Evidence has also been preserved (for example, in the paintings of the Orko tomb) indicating the nature of ideas about the bliss and horror of the afterlife.

In the so-called Etruscan teachings(Etrusca disciplina), several books compiled in the 2nd century. BC, the content of which we can judge only on the basis of fragmentary instructions from later writers, information and instructions were collected regarding Etruscan religious beliefs, customs and rituals. There were: 1) libri haruspicini, books about predictions; 2) libri fulgurales, books about lightning; 3) libri rituales, books about rituals. Libri haruspicini taught the art of ascertaining the will of the gods through examination of the entrails (primarily the liver) of certain animals. A soothsayer who specialized in this type of divination was called a haruspex. Libri fulgurales concerned the interpretation of lightning, its atonement and propitiation. The priest in charge of this procedure was called a fulgurator. The libri rituales discussed the norms of political and social life and the conditions of human existence, including in the afterlife. These books were in charge of a whole hierarchy of experts. Ceremonies and superstitions described in Etruscan teachings, continued to influence Roman society after the turn of our era. We find the last mention of the use of Etruscan rituals in practice in 408 AD, when the priests who came to Rome proposed to ward off danger from the city from the Goths, led by Alaric.

Economy.

When the Roman consul Scipio Africanus was preparing to invade Africa, i.e. for the campaign that was to end the 2nd Punic War, many Etruscan communities offered him their help. From the message of Livy (XXVIII 45) we learn that the city of Caere promised to provide grain and other food for the troops; Populonia undertook to supply iron, Tarquinia - canvas, Volaterr - parts of ship equipment. Arretius promised to provide 3,000 shields, 3,000 helmets and 50,000 javelins, short pikes and javelins, as well as axes, spades, sickles, baskets and 120,000 measures of wheat. Perusia, Clusius and Rucelles promised to allocate grain and ship timber. If such obligations were taken in 205 BC, when Etruria had already lost its independence, then during the years of Etruscan hegemony in Italy, its agriculture, crafts and trade should have truly flourished. In addition to the production of grain, olives, wine and timber, the rural population was engaged in cattle breeding, sheep breeding, hunting and fishing. The Etruscans also made household utensils and personal items. The development of production was facilitated by the abundant supply of iron and copper from the island of Elba. Populonia was one of the main centers of metallurgy. Etruscan products penetrated into Greece and Northern Europe.

ART AND ARCHEOLOGY

History of excavations.

The Etruscans were assimilated by the Romans during the last 3 centuries BC, but because their art was highly valued, Etruscan temples, city walls and tombs survived this period. Traces of Etruscan civilization were partially buried underground along with Roman ruins and generally did not attract attention in the Middle Ages (however, a certain influence of Etruscan painting is found in Giotto); however, during the Renaissance, they became interested again and some of them were excavated. Among those who visited Etruscan tombs were Michelangelo and Giorgio Vasari. Among the famous statues discovered in the 16th century are the famous Chimera (1553), Minerva of Arezzo (1554) and the so-called. Speaker(Arringatore) - a portrait statue of some official, found near Lake Trasimene in 1566. In the 17th century. the number of excavated objects increased, and in the 18th century. extensive study of Etruscan antiquities gave rise to enormous enthusiasm (etruscheria, i.e. “Etruscan mania”) among Italian scientists who believed that Etruscan culture was superior to ancient Greek. In the course of more or less systematic excavations, 19th century researchers. discovered thousands of the richest Etruscan tombs, filled with Etruscan metalwork and Greek vases, in Perugia, Tarquinia, Vulci, Cerveteri (1836, tomb of Regolini-Galassi), Veii, Chiusi, Bologna, Vetulonia and many other places. In the 20th century Particularly significant were the discoveries of temple sculptures in Veii (1916 and 1938) and a rich burial in Comacchio (1922) on the Adriatic coast. Significant progress has been made in the understanding of Etruscan antiquities, especially through the efforts of the Institute of Etruscan and Italian Studies in Florence and its scientific periodical Studi Etruschi, published since 1927.

Geographical distribution of monuments.

The archaeological map of the monuments left by the Etruscans reflects their history. The oldest settlements, dating from around 700 BC, are found in the coastal area between Rome and the island of Elba: Veii, Cerveteri, Tarquinia, Vulci, Statonia, Vetulonia and Populonia. From the end of the 7th century and throughout the 6th century. BC. Etruscan culture spread to the mainland from Pisa in the north and along the Apennines. In addition to Umbria, the Etruscan possessions included cities that now bear the names of Fiesole, Arezzo, Cortona, Chiusi and Perugia. Their culture penetrated south, to the modern cities of Orvieto, Falerii and Rome, and finally beyond Naples and into the Campania. Objects of Etruscan culture have been discovered in Velletri, Praeneste, Conca, Capua and Pompeii. Bologna, Marzabotto and Spina became centers of Etruscan colonization of the areas beyond the Apennine mountain range. Later, in 393 BC, the Gauls invaded these lands. Through trade, Etruscan influence spread to other areas of Italy.

With the weakening of the power of the Etruscans under the blows of the Gauls and Romans, the area of ​​distribution of their material culture also shrank. However, in some cities of Tuscany, cultural traditions and language survived into the 1st century. BC. In Clusia, art belonging to the Etruscan tradition was produced until about 100 BC; in Volaterra - until about 80 BC, and in Perusia - until about 40 BC. Some Etruscan inscriptions date from a time after the disappearance of the Etruscan states and may date back to the Augustan era.

Tombs.

The oldest traces of the Etruscans can be traced through their burials, often located on separate hills and, for example, in Caere and Tarquinia, which were real cities of the dead. The simplest type of tomb, which spread from about 700 BC, is a recess carved into the rock. For kings and their relatives, such graves were apparently made larger. Such are the tombs of Bernardini and Barberini at Praeneste (c. 650 BC), with numerous decorations in gold and silver, bronze tripods and cauldrons, as well as glass and ivory objects brought from Phenicia. Since the 7th century. BC. A typical technique was to connect several chambers together so that entire underground dwellings of different sizes were obtained. They had doors, sometimes windows, and often stone benches on which the dead were laid. In some cities (Caere, Tarquinia, Vetulonia, Populonia and Clusium), such tombs were covered with embankments up to 45 m in diameter, built on top of natural hills. In other places (for example, in San Giuliano and Norcia), crypts were carved into steep rock cliffs, giving them the appearance of houses and temples with flat or sloping roofs.

The architectural form of the tombs, built of cut stone, is interesting. A long corridor was built for the ruler of the city of Cere, above which huge stone blocks formed a false pointed vault. The design and construction technique of this tomb is reminiscent of the tombs in Ugarit (Syria) dating back to the era of the Cretan-Mycenaean culture and the so-called. tomb of Tantalus in Asia Minor. Some Etruscan tombs have a false dome over a rectangular chamber (Pietrera in Vetulonia and Poggio delle Granate in Populonia) or over a circular room (the tomb from Casale Marittimo, reconstructed in the Archaeological Museum of Florence). Both types of tombs date back to the architectural tradition of the 2nd millennium BC. and resemble the tombs of earlier times in Cyprus and Crete.

The so-called “Grotto of Pythagoras” at Cortona, which is actually an Etruscan tomb from the 5th century. BC, testifies to the understanding of the laws of interaction of multidirectional forces, necessary for the construction of genuine arches and vaults. Such structures appear in late tombs (3rd–1st centuries BC) - for example, in the so-called. the tomb of the Grand Duke in Chiusi and the tomb of San Manno near Perugia. The territory of Etruscan cemeteries is crossed by regularly oriented passages, on which deep ruts left by funeral carts have been preserved. The paintings and reliefs reproduce the public mourning and solemn processions that accompanied the deceased to his eternal abode, where he will be among the furnishings, personal effects, bowls and jugs left for him to eat and drink. The platforms erected above the tomb were intended for funeral feasts, including dances and games, and for the kind of gladiatorial combats represented in the paintings of the tomb of the Augurs at Tarquinia. It is the contents of the tombs that give us most of the information about the life and art of the Etruscans.

Cities.

The Etruscans can be considered the people who brought urban civilization to central and northern Italy, but little is known about their cities. Intense human activity in these areas, which lasted for many centuries, destroyed or hid from view many Etruscan monuments. Nevertheless, quite a few mountain towns in Tuscany are still surrounded by walls built by the Etruscans (Orvieto, Cortona, Chiusi, Fiesole, Perugia and, probably, Cerveteri). In addition, impressive city walls can be seen at Veii, Falerii, Saturnia and Tarquinia, and later city gates dating from the 3rd and 2nd centuries. BC, – in Falerii and Perugia. Aerial photography is increasingly being used to locate Etruscan settlements and burial grounds. In the mid-1990s, systematic excavations began at a number of Etruscan cities, including Cerveteri and Tarquinia, as well as a number of cities in Tuscany.

Etruscan mountain cities do not have a regular layout, as evidenced by sections of two streets in Vetulonia. The dominant element in the appearance of the city was the temple or temples, built on the most elevated places, as in Orvieto and Tarquinia. As a rule, the city had three gates dedicated to the intercessor gods: one to Tina (Jupiter), another to Uni (Juno), and the third to Menrva (Minerva). Extremely regular buildings with rectangular blocks were found only in Marzabotto (near modern Bologna), an Etruscan colony on the Reno River. Its streets were paved and water was drained through terracotta pipes.

Dwellings.

In Veii and Vetulonia, simple dwellings such as log cabins with two rooms, as well as houses with an irregular layout with several rooms, were found. The noble Lucumoni who ruled Etruscan cities probably had more extensive urban and country residences. They are apparently reproduced by stone urns in the shape of houses and late Etruscan tombs. The urn, kept in the Florence Museum, depicts a palace-like two-story stone structure with an arched entrance, wide windows on the ground floor and galleries along the second floor. The Roman type of house with an atrium probably goes back to Etruscan prototypes.

Temples.

The Etruscans built their temples from wood and mud brick with terracotta cladding. The temple of the simplest type, very similar to the early Greek one, had a square room for a cult statue and a portico supported by two columns. An elaborate temple described by the Roman architect Vitruvius ( About architecture IV 8, 1), was divided inside into three rooms (cells) for the three main gods - Tin, Uni and Menrva. The portico was the same depth as the interior, and had two rows of columns - four in each row. Since observation of the sky played an important role in the Etruscan religion, temples were built on high platforms. Temples with three cellae are reminiscent of the pre-Greek sanctuaries of Lemnos and Crete. As we now know, they placed large terracotta statues on the roof ridge (as, for example, in Veii). In other words, Etruscan temples are a variety of Greek ones. The Etruscans also created a developed road network, bridges, sewers and irrigation canals.

Sculpture.

Early in their history, the Etruscans imported Syrian, Phoenician and Assyrian ivory and metalwork and imitated them in their own production. However, very soon they began to imitate everything Greek. Although their art reflects mainly Greek styles, it has a healthy energy and earthy spirit that is not characteristic of the Greek prototype, which is more reserved and intellectual in character. The best Etruscan sculptures, perhaps, should be considered those made of metal, mainly bronze. Most of these statues were captured by the Romans: according to Pliny the Elder ( Natural history XXXIV 34), in Volsinia alone, taken in 256 BC, they received 2000 pieces. Few have survived to this day. Among the most remarkable are a female bust forged from metal sheet from Vulci (c. 600 BC, British Museum), a chariot richly decorated with relief mythological scenes from Monteleone (c. 540 BC, Metropolitan Museum); Chimera from Arezzo (c. 500 BC, Archaeological Museum in Florence); statue of a boy from the same time (in Copenhagen); god of war (c. 450 BC, in Kansas City); statue of a warrior from Tudera (c. 350 BC, now in the Vatican); expressive head of a priest (c. 180 BC, British Museum); head of a boy (c. 280 BC, Archaeological Museum in Florence). Symbol of Rome, famous Capitoline wolf(approximately dated after 500 BC, now in the Palazzo dei Conservatori in Rome), known already in the Middle Ages, probably also made by the Etruscans.

A remarkable achievement of world art were the terracotta statues and reliefs of the Etruscans. The best of them are the archaic era statues found near the temple of Apollo in Veii, among which there are images of gods and goddesses watching the struggle of Apollo and Hercules over a killed deer (c. 500 BC). A relief depiction of a lively fight (probably from the pediment) was discovered in 1957–1958 in Pyrgi, the port of Cerveteri. In style it echoes the Greek compositions of the early classical era (480–470 BC). A magnificent team of winged horses was found near a 4th century temple. BC. in Tarquinia. Interesting from a historical point of view are the living scenes from the pediments of the temple in Civita Alba, which depict the sack of Delphi by the Gauls.

Stone Etruscan sculpture reveals more local originality than metal sculpture. The first experiments in creating sculptures from stone are represented by pillar-shaped figures of men and women from the tomb of Pietrera in Vetulonia. They imitate Greek statues of the mid-7th century. BC. The archaic tombs at Vulci and Chiusi are decorated with the figure of a centaur and various stone busts. Images of battles, festivals, games, funerals and scenes of women's life were found on tombstones of the 6th century. BC. from Chiusi and Fiesole. There are also scenes from Greek mythology, such as relief images on stone slabs installed above the entrance to the tombs at Tarquinia. From 4th century BC sarcophagi and urns containing ashes were usually decorated with reliefs on themes of Greek legends and scenes of the afterlife. On the lids of many of them are figures of reclining men and women, whose faces are particularly expressive.

Painting.

Etruscan painting is especially valuable, since it makes it possible to judge Greek paintings and frescoes that have not reached us. With the exception of a few fragments of the picturesque decoration of the temples (Cerveteri and Faleria), Etruscan frescoes were preserved only in the tombs - in Cerveteri, Veii, Orvieto and Tarquinia. In the oldest (c. 600 BC) tomb of the Lions at Cerveteri there is an image of a deity between two lions; in the tomb of Campana at Veii, the deceased is represented riding out on horseback to hunt. From the middle of the 6th century. BC. Scenes of dancing, libations, as well as athletic and gladiatorial competitions (Tarquinia) predominate, although there are also images of hunting and fishing (the tomb of Hunting and Fishing in Tarquinia). The best monuments of Etruscan painting are dance scenes from the tomb of Francesca Giustiniani and the tomb of Triclinius. The drawing here is very confident, the color scheme is not rich (yellow, red, brown, green and blue) and discreet, but harmonious. The frescoes of these two tombs imitate the work of Greek masters of the 5th century. BC. Among the few painted tombs of the late period, the large tomb of François in Vulci (4th century BC) is rightfully distinguished. One of the scenes discovered here - the attack of the Roman Gnaeus Tarquin on the Etruscan Caelius Vibenna, assisted by his brother Aelius and another Etruscan Mastarna - is probably an Etruscan interpretation of a Roman legend on the same topic; other scenes are borrowed from Homer. The Etruscan underworld, with an admixture of individual Greek elements, is represented in the tomb of Orcus, the tomb of Typhon and the tomb of the Cardinal at Tarquinia, where various fearsome demons are depicted (Haru, Tukhulka). These Etruscan demons were apparently known to the Roman poet Virgil.

Ceramics.

Etruscan ceramics are technologically good, but are mostly imitative in nature. Black vases of the bucchero type imitate bronze vessels (7th–5th centuries BC) with greater or lesser success; they are often decorated with relief figures, usually reproducing Greek designs. The evolution of painted pottery follows, with some lag in time, the development of Greek vases. The most original are vases depicting objects of non-Greek origin, for example, the ships of Tyrrhenian pirates or following the style of folk art. In other words, the value of Etruscan ceramics lies in the fact that through it we trace the growth of Greek influence, especially in the field of mythology. The Etruscans themselves preferred Greek vases, which were discovered in the thousands in Etruscan tombs (about 80% of the currently known Greek vases come from Etruria and southern Italy. Thus, the Francois vase (in the Archaeological Museum of Florence), a magnificent creation of the master of the Attic black-figure style Clytius (first half of 6 century BC), was found in an Etruscan tomb near Chiusi.

Metalworking.

According to Greek authors, Etruscan bronzes were highly valued in Greece. An ancient bowl with human faces discovered in the necropolis of Athens, approximately dating back to the beginning of the 7th century, is probably of Etruscan origin. BC. Part of an Etruscan tripod found on the Acropolis of Athens. At the end of the 7th, in the 6th and 5th centuries. BC. a large number of Etruscan cauldrons, buckets and jugs for wine were exported to Central Europe, some of them even reached Scandinavia. Bronze Etruscan figurine found in England.

In Tuscany, reliable, large and very impressive stands, tripods, cauldrons, lamps and even thrones were made from bronze. These objects also formed part of the furnishings of the tombs, many of which were decorated with relief or three-dimensional images of people and animals. Bronze chariots with scenes of heroic battles or figures of legendary heroes were also made here. The engraved design was widely used to decorate bronze toilet boxes and bronze mirrors, many of which were made in the Latin city of Praeneste. Both scenes from Greek myths and major and minor Etruscan gods were used as motifs. The most famous of the engraved vessels is the Ficoroni cyst in Rome's Villa Giulia Museum, which depicts the exploits of the Argonauts.

Jewelry.

The Etruscans also excelled in jewelry. A remarkable array of bracelets, plates, necklaces and brooches adorned the woman buried in the Regolini-Galassi tomb at Caere: she appears to have been literally covered in gold. The technique of granulation, when tiny balls of gold were soldered onto a hot surface to depict the figures of gods and animals, was nowhere used as skillfully as in decorating the bows of some Etruscan brooches. Later, the Etruscans made earrings of various shapes with amazing ingenuity and care.

Coins.

The Etruscans mastered coinage in the 5th century. BC. Gold, silver and bronze were used for this. The coins, designed according to Greek designs, depicted seahorses, gorgons, wheels, vases, double axes and profiles of various patron gods of cities. Inscriptions were also made on them with the names of Etruscan cities: Velzna (Volsinia), Vetluna (Vetulonia), Hamars (Chiusi), Pupluna (Populonia). The last Etruscan coins were minted in the 2nd century. BC.

The contribution of archaeology.

Archaeological discoveries made in Etruria since the mid-16th century. to this day, they have recreated a vivid picture of Etruscan civilization. This picture was significantly enriched by the use of such new methods as photographing unexcavated tombs (a method invented by C. Lerici) using a special periscope. Archaeological finds reflect not only the power and wealth of the early Etruscans, based on piracy and barter, but also their gradual decline, due, according to ancient authors, to the enervating influence of luxury. These finds illustrate Etruscan warfare, their beliefs, their pastimes and, to a lesser extent, their work activities. Vases, reliefs, sculpture, paintings and works of art of small forms show a surprisingly complete assimilation of Greek customs and beliefs, as well as striking evidence of the influence of the pre-Greek era.

Archeology also confirmed the literary tradition that spoke of Etruscan influence on Rome. The terracotta decoration of early Roman temples was made in the Etruscan style; Many vases and bronze objects from the early Republican period of Roman history are made by or in the manner of the Etruscans. The double ax as a symbol of power, according to the Romans, was of Etruscan origin; double axes are also represented in Etruscan funerary sculpture - for example, on the stele of Aulus Velusca, located in Florence. Moreover, such double hatchets were placed in the tombs of leaders, as was the case in Populonia. At least until the 4th century. BC. the material culture of Rome was entirely dependent on the culture of the Etruscans

(1494-1559)

Argumentation of the migration version

The second theory is supported by the works of Herodotus, which appeared in the 5th century BC. e. As Herodotus argued, the Etruscans were natives of Lydia, a region in Asia Minor, the Tyrrhenians or Tyrsenians, who were forced to leave their homeland due to catastrophic crop failure and famine. According to Herodotus, this happened almost simultaneously with the Trojan War. Hellanicus from the island of Lesbos mentioned the legend of the Pelasgians, who arrived in Italy and became known as the Tyrrhenians. At that time, the Mycenaean civilization collapsed and the Hittite Empire fell, that is, the appearance of the Tyrrhenians should be dated to the 13th century BC. e. or a little later. Perhaps connected with this legend is the myth about the flight to the west of the Trojan hero Aeneas and the founding of the Roman state, which was of great importance for the Etruscans. Herodotus's hypothesis is supported by genetic analysis data, which confirm the kinship of the Etruscans with the inhabitants of the lands currently belonging to Turkey.

Until the middle of the 20th century. The “Lydian version” was subject to serious criticism, especially after the decipherment of the Lydian inscriptions - their language had nothing in common with Etruscan. However, there is also a version that the Etruscans should not be identified with the Lydians, but with the more ancient, pre-Indo-European population of the west of Asia Minor, known as the “Proto-Luvians”. A. Erman identified the legendary Tursha tribe, which lived in the eastern Mediterranean and carried out predatory raids on Egypt (XIII-VII centuries BC), with the Etruscans of this early period.

Argumentation of the complex version

Based on the material of ancient sources and archaeological data, we can conclude that the most ancient elements of prehistoric Mediterranean unity took part in the ethnogenesis of the Etruscans during the period of the beginning of the movement from East to West in the 4th-3rd millennium BC. e.; also a wave of settlers from the area of ​​the Black and Caspian Seas in the 2nd millennium BC. e. In the process of forming the Etruscan community, traces of Aegean and Aegean-Anatolian emigrants were found. This is confirmed by the results of excavations on the island. Lemnos (Aegean Sea), where inscriptions similar to the grammatical structure of the Etruscan language were found.

Geographical position

It is not yet possible to determine the exact limits of Etruria. The history and culture of the Etruscans began in the Tyrrhenian Sea region and is limited to the basin of the Tiber and Arno rivers. The country's river network also included the rivers Aventia, Vesidia, Tsetsina, Alusa, Umbro, Oza, Albinia, Armenta, Marta, Minio, and Aro. A wide river network created conditions for developed agriculture, in some places complicated by wetlands. Southern Etruria, whose soils were often of volcanic origin, had extensive lakes: Tsiminskoe, Alsietiskoe, Statonenskoe, Volsinskoe, Sabatinskoe, Trasimenskoe. More than half of the country's territory was occupied by mountains and hills. From the paintings and reliefs one can judge the diversity of flora and fauna of the region. The Etruscans cultivated cypress, myrtle, and pomegranate trees, brought to Italy from Carthage (an image of a pomegranate is found on Etruscan objects in the 6th century BC).

Cities and necropolises

Each of the Etruscan cities controlled a certain territory. The exact number of inhabitants of the Etruscan city-states is unknown; according to rough estimates, the population of Cerveteri in its heyday was 25 thousand people.

Cerveteri was the southernmost city of Etruria; it controlled deposits of metal-bearing ore, which ensured the well-being of the city. The settlement was located near the coast on a steep ledge. The necropolis was traditionally located outside the city. A road led to it along which funeral carts were transported. There were tombs on both sides of the road. The bodies rested on benches, in niches or terracotta sarcophagi. The personal belongings of the deceased were placed with them.

From the name of this city (etr. - Caere) the Roman word “ceremony” was subsequently derived - this is how the Romans called some funeral rites.

The neighboring city of Veii had excellent defenses. The city and its acropolis were surrounded by ditches, making Veii almost impregnable. An altar, a temple foundation and water tanks were discovered here. Vulka is the only Etruscan sculptor whose name we know was a native of Wei. The area around the city is notable for the passages carved into the rock, which served to drain water.

The recognized center of Etruria was the city of Tarquinia. The name of the city comes from the son or brother of Tyrrhenus Tarkon, who founded twelve Etruscan policies. The necropolises of Tarquinia were concentrated near the hills of Colle de Civita and Monterozzi. The tombs, carved into the rock, were protected by mounds, the chambers were painted for two hundred years. It was here that magnificent sarcophagi were discovered, decorated with bas-reliefs with images of the deceased on the lid.

When laying the city, the Etruscans observed rituals similar to the Roman ones. An ideal place was chosen, a hole was dug into which the sacrifices were thrown. From this place, the founder of the city, using a plow drawn by a cow and an ox, drew a furrow that determined the position of the city walls. Where possible, the Etruscans used a lattice street layout, oriented to the cardinal points.

Story

The formation, development and collapse of the Etruscan state took place against the backdrop of three periods of Ancient Greece - Orientalizing or Geometric, Classical (Hellenistic), and the rise of Rome. The earlier stages are given in accordance with the autochthonic theory of the origin of the Etruscans.

Proto-Villanovian period

The most important of the historical sources that marked the beginning of the Etruscan civilization is the Etruscan chronology of saecula (centuries). According to him, the first century of the ancient state, saeculum, began around the 11th or 10th century BC. e. This time belongs to the so-called Proto-Villanovian period (XII-X centuries BC). There is extremely little data on the Proto-Villanovians. The only important evidence of the beginning of a new civilization is a change in the funeral rite, which began to be performed by cremating the body on a funeral pyre, followed by burying the ashes in urns.

Villanova I and Villanova II periods

After the loss of independence, Etruria retained its cultural identity for some time. In the II-I centuries BC. e. local art continued to exist; this period is also called Etruscan-Roman. But gradually the Etruscans adopted the way of life of the Romans. In 89 BC. e. the inhabitants of Etruria received Roman citizenship. By this time, the process of Romanization of Etruscan cities was almost completed, along with Etruscan history itself.

Arts and culture

The first monuments of Etruscan culture date back to the end of the 9th - beginning of the 8th centuries. BC e. The development cycle of Etruscan civilization ends in the 2nd century. BC e. Rome was under its influence until the 1st century. BC e.

The Etruscans long preserved the archaic cults of the first Italian settlers and showed a special interest in death and the afterlife. Therefore, Etruscan art was significantly associated with the decoration of tombs, based on the concept that the objects in them should maintain a connection with real life. The most notable surviving monuments are sculpture and sarcophagi.

Etruscan language and literature

A special category were women's toiletries. One of the most famous products of Etruscan craftsmen were bronze hand mirrors. Some are equipped with folding drawers and decorated with high reliefs. One surface was carefully polished, the reverse was decorated with engraving or high relief. Strigils were made from bronze - spatulas for removing oil and dirt, cysts, nail files, and caskets.

By modern standards, Etruscan houses are rather sparsely furnished. As a rule, the Etruscans did not use shelves and cabinets; things and provisions were stored in caskets, baskets or hung on hooks.

Luxury goods and jewelry

For centuries, Etruscan aristocrats wore jewelry and acquired luxury items made of glass, earthenware, amber, ivory, precious stones, gold and silver. Villanovians in the 7th century BC e. wore glass beads, precious metal jewelry, and faience pendants from the Eastern Mediterranean. The most important local products were brooches, made of bronze, gold, silver and iron. The latter were considered rare.

The exceptional prosperity of Etruria in the 7th century BC. e. caused a rapid development of jewelry and an influx of imported products. Silver bowls were imported from Phenicia, and the images on them were copied by Etruscan craftsmen. Boxes and cups were made from ivory imported from the East. Most jewelry was produced in Etruria. Goldsmiths used engraving, filigree and graining. In addition to brooches, pins, buckles, hair ribbons, earrings, rings, necklaces, bracelets, and clothing plates were widespread.

During the Archaic era, decorations became more elaborate. Earrings in the form of tiny bags and disc-shaped earrings have come into fashion. Semi-precious stones and colored glass were used. During this period, beautiful gems appeared. Hollow pendants or bullas often played the role of amulets and were worn by children and adults. Etruscan women of the Hellenistic period preferred Greek-type jewelry. In the 2nd century BC. e. They wore a tiara on their heads, small earrings with pendants in their ears, disc-shaped clasps on their shoulders, and their hands were decorated with bracelets and rings.

• The Etruscans all wore short hair, with the exception of the haruspex priests [ ] . The priests did not cut their hair, but removed it from their foreheads with a narrow headband, a gold or silver hoop [ ] . In an earlier period, the Etruscans cut their beards short, but later they began to shave them clean [ ] . Women let their hair down over their shoulders or braided it and covered their head with a cap.

  Leisure

  The Etruscans loved to participate in fighting competitions and, perhaps, to help other people with housework [ ] . Also, the Etruscans had a theater, but it did not become as widespread as, for example, the Attic theater, and the manuscripts of plays found are not enough for a final analysis.

  Economy

  Crafts and agriculture

  The basis of Etruria's prosperity was agriculture, which made it possible to keep livestock and export surplus wheat to the largest cities in Italy. Spelled, oat and barley grains were found in the archaeological material. The high level of Etruscan agriculture made it possible to engage in selection - an Etruscan spelled variety was obtained, and for the first time they began to cultivate cultivated oats. Flax was used to sew tunics and raincoats, and ship sails. This material was used to record various texts (this achievement was later adopted by the Romans). There is evidence from antiquities about the strength of linen thread, from which Etruscan artisans made armor (6th century BC tomb, Tarquinia). The Etruscans quite widely used artificial irrigation, drainage, and regulation of river flows. The ancient canals known to archaeological science were located near the Etruscan cities of Spina, Veii, in the Coda region.

  In the depths of the Apennines lay copper, zinc, silver, iron, and on the island of Ilva (Elba) iron ore reserves - everything was developed by the Etruscans. The presence of numerous metal products in the tombs of the 8th century. BC e. in Etruria it is associated with an adequate level of mining and metallurgy. Remains of mining are widely found in ancient Populonia (Campiglia Marritima region). The analysis allows us to establish that the smelting of copper and bronze preceded iron processing. There are finds made of copper inlaid with miniature iron squares - a technique used when working with expensive materials. In the 7th century BC e. iron was still a rare metal for processing. Nevertheless, metalworking in cities and colonial centers has been identified: the production of metal utensils was developed in Capua and Nola, and an assortment of blacksmith items was found in Minturni, Venafre, and Suessa. Metalworking workshops are noted in Marzabotto. For that time, the mining and processing of copper and iron was significant in scale. In this area, the Etruscans succeeded in constructing mines for manual extraction of ore.

Italy in Modern Times (1559-1814)

Military history of Italy

Economic history of Italy

Electoral history

History of fashion in Italy

History of money in Italy

History of music in Italy

Until the middle of the 20th century. The “Lydian version” was subject to serious criticism, especially after the decipherment of the Lydian inscriptions - their language had nothing in common with Etruscan. However, according to modern ideas, the Etruscans should be identified not with the Lydians, but with the more ancient, pre-Indo-European population of the west of Asia Minor, known as the “Proto-Luvians” or “ sea ​​peoples ».

Story

The formation, development and collapse of the Etruscan state took place against the backdrop of three periods of Ancient Greece - Orientalizing, or geometric, classical, Hellenistic, as well as the rise of the Roman Republic. The earlier stages are given in accordance with the autochthonic theory of the origin of the Etruscans.

Proto-Villanovian period

Funeral urn in the form of a hut. 9th century BC e.

The most important of the Etruscan sources that marked the beginning of Etruscan civilization is the Etruscan chronology saecula (centuries). According to it, the first century of the ancient state, saeculum, began around the 11th or 10th century BC. e. This time belongs to the so-called Proto-Villanovian period (XII-X centuries BC). There is extremely little data on the Proto-Villanovians. The only important evidence of the beginning of a new civilization is a change in the funeral rite, which began to be performed by cremating the body on a funeral pyre, followed by burying the ashes in the fields of urns.

Villanova I and Villanova II periods

After the loss of independence, Etruria retained its identity for some time. In the II-I centuries BC. e. local art continued to exist; this period is also called Etruscan-Roman. But gradually the Etruscans adopted the way of life of the Romans. In 89 BC. e. The Etruscans were granted Roman citizenship. By this time, the process of assimilation of Etruscan cities was almost completed. And yet in the 2nd century AD. e. some Etruscans spoke their own language. Lasted much longer haruspices, Etruscan soothsayers. However, Etruscan history was completed.

Art

The first monuments of Etruscan culture date back to the end of the 9th - beginning of the 8th centuries. BC e. The development cycle of Etruscan civilization ends in the 2nd century. BC e. Rome was under its influence until the 1st century. BC e.

The Etruscans long preserved the archaic cults of the first Italian settlers and showed a special interest in death and the afterlife. Therefore, Etruscan art was significantly associated with the decoration of tombs, based on the concept that the objects in them should maintain a connection with real life. The most notable surviving monuments are the sculpture and sarcophagi.

The science

We know very little about Etruscan science, with the exception of medicine, which was admired by the Romans. Etruscan doctors knew anatomy well, and it was no coincidence that the ancient historian wrote about “Etruria, famous for the discovery of medicines.” They achieved some success in dentistry: in some burials, for example, even dentures were found.

Very little information has also reached us about the literature, scientific and historical works created by the Etruscans.

Cities and necropolises

Each of the Etruscan cities influenced the territory it controlled. The exact number of inhabitants of the Etruscan city-states is unknown; according to rough estimates, the population of Cerveteri in its heyday was 25 thousand people.

Cerveteri was the southernmost city of Etruria; it controlled deposits of metal-bearing ore, which ensured the well-being of the city. The settlement was located near the coast on a steep ledge. Necropolis traditionally located outside the city. A road led to it along which funeral carts were transported. There were tombs on both sides of the road. The bodies rested on benches, in niches or terracotta sarcophagi. The personal belongings of the deceased were placed with them.

Foundations of houses in the Etruscan city of Marzabotto

From the name of this city (etr. - Caere) the Roman word “ceremony” was subsequently derived - this is how the Romans called some funeral rites.

The neighboring city of Veii had excellent defenses. The city and its acropolis were surrounded by ditches, making Veii almost impregnable. Found here altar, temple foundation and water tanks. Vulka is the only Etruscan sculptor whose name we know was a native of Wei. The area around the city is notable for the passages carved into the rock, which served to drain water.

The recognized center of Etruria was the city of Tarquinia. The name of the city comes from the son or brother of Tirren Tarkon, who founded twelve Etruscan policies. The necropolises of Tarquinia were concentrated near the hills of Colle de Civita and Monterozzi. The tombs, carved into the rock, were protected by mounds, the chambers were painted for two hundred years. It was here that magnificent sarcophagi were discovered, decorated with bas-reliefs with images of the deceased on the lid.

When laying the city, the Etruscans observed rituals similar to the Roman ones. An ideal place was chosen, a hole was dug into which the sacrifices were thrown. From this place, the founder of the city, using a plow drawn by a cow and an ox, drew a furrow that determined the position of the city walls. Where possible, the Etruscans used a lattice street layout, oriented to the cardinal points.

Life

The houses and tombs described above belonged to people who could afford to purchase luxury goods. Therefore, most of the household items found at the excavations tell about the life of the upper strata of Etruscan society.

Ceramics

The Etruscans created their ceramic products, inspired by the works of Greek masters. The shapes of the vessels changed over the centuries, as did the manufacturing technique and style. Villanovians made pottery from a material often called impasto, although this is not quite the correct term to describe Italic vessels made of mixed clay, fired to a brown or black color.

Around the middle of the 7th century BC. e. real vessels appeared in Etruria bucchero- black ceramics characteristic of the Etruscans. Early bucchero vessels were thin-walled and decorated with incisions and ornaments. Later, a procession of animals and people became a favorite motif. Gradually, the bucchero vessels became pretentious, overloaded with decorations. This type of pottery had already disappeared by the 5th century BC. e.

In the 6th century, black-figure ceramics became widespread. The Etruscans mainly copied products from Corinth and Ionia, adding something of their own. The Etruscans continued to produce black-figure vessels when the Greeks switched to the red-figure technique. True red-figure pottery appeared in Etruria in the second half of the 5th century BC. e. Favorite subjects were mythological episodes and scenes of farewell to the dead. The production center was Vulci. Painted pottery continued to be produced in the 3rd and even 2nd century BC. e. But gradually the style leaned towards black ceramics - the vessel was covered with paint, which imitated metal. There were silver-plated vessels of exquisite shape, decorated high reliefs. Ceramics made from Arezzo, used on Roman tables in subsequent centuries.

Bronze products

The Etruscans had no equal in working with bronze. Even the Greeks admitted this. They collected some Etruscan bronzes. Bronze vessels, especially for wine, often followed Greek forms. Scoops and sieves were made from bronze. Some products were decorated with bas-reliefs, the handles were shaped like bird or animal heads. Candelabra for candles were made from bronze. A large number of incense braziers have also been preserved. Other bronze utensils include meat hooks, basins and jugs, tripods for cauldrons, libation bowls, and stands for playing cottabos.

A special category were women's toiletries. One of the most famous products of Etruscan craftsmen were bronze hand mirrors. Some are equipped with folding drawers and decorated with high reliefs. One surface was carefully polished, the other was decorated engraving or high relief. Strigils were made from bronze - spatulas for removing oil and dirt, cysts, nail files, and caskets.

Other household items

The best items in an Etruscan home were made of bronze. Others were lost because they were made of wood, leather, wicker, and fabric. We know about these objects thanks to various images. For several centuries, the Etruscans used chairs with a high rounded back, the prototype of which was the wicker chair. Products from Chiusi - chairs with backs and tables with four legs - indicate that in the 7th century BC. e. The Etruscans sat at the table while eating. In Etruria, it was common for spouses to eat together; they reclined together on a Greek wedge bed, which was covered with mattresses and pillows folded in half. Low tables were placed in front of the bed. In the 6th century BC. e. a lot of folding chairs appear. The Etruscans also borrowed chairs with high backs and high tables from the Greeks - they placed them on these craters And oinochoi.

By modern standards, Etruscan houses are rather sparsely furnished. As a rule, the Etruscans did not use shelves and cabinets; things and provisions were stored in caskets, baskets or hung on hooks.

Luxury goods and jewelry

For centuries, Etruscan aristocrats wore jewelry and purchased luxury items made of glass, earthenware, amber, ivory, precious stones, gold and silver. Villanovians in the 7th century BC e. wore glass beads, jewelry made of precious metals and faience pendants from the Eastern Mediterranean. The most important local products were brooches made from bronze, gold, silver and iron. The latter were considered rare. The exceptional prosperity of Etruria in the 7th century BC. e. caused a rapid development of jewelry and an influx of imported products. Silver bowls were imported from Phenicia, and the images on them were copied by Etruscan craftsmen. Boxes and cups were made from ivory imported from the East. Most jewelry was produced in Etruria. Goldsmiths used engraving, filigree and graining. In addition to brooches, pins, buckles, hair ribbons, earrings, rings, necklaces, bracelets, and clothing plates were widespread. During the Archaic era, decorations became more elaborate. Earrings in the form of tiny bags and disc-shaped earrings have come into fashion. Semi-precious stones and colored glass were used. During this period, beautiful gems appeared. Hollow pendants often played the role of amulets; they were worn by children and adults. Etruscan women of the Hellenistic period preferred Greek-type jewelry. In the 2nd century BC. e. They wore a tiara on their heads, small earrings with pendants in their ears, disc-shaped clasps on their shoulders, and their hands were decorated with bracelets and rings.

Clothes and hairstyles

Clothing consisted mainly of a cape and a shirt. The head was covered with a high hat with a round top and curved brim. Women let their hair down over their shoulders or braided it and covered their head with a cap. Sandals served as footwear for men and women. The Etruscans all wore short hair, with the exception of the haruspex priests. The priests did not cut their hair, but removed it from their foreheads with a narrow headband, a gold or silver hoop. In more ancient times, the Etruscans kept their beards short, but later they began to shave them clean.

Military organization and economy

Military organization

Trade

Crafts and Agriculture

Religion

The Etruscans deified the forces of nature and worshiped many gods and goddesses. The main deities of this people were considered Tin (Tinia) - the supreme god of the sky, Uni and Menrva. Besides them there were many other gods. The sky was divided into 16 regions, each of which had its own deity. In the Etruscan worldview, there were also gods of the sea and the underworld, natural elements, rivers and streams, gods of plants, gates and doors; and deified ancestors; and simply various demons (for example, the Demon Tukhulka with a hawk's beak and a ball of snakes on his head instead of hair, who was the executor of the will of the gods of the underworld).

The Etruscans believed that the gods could punish people for mistakes and lack of attention to their persons, and therefore sacrifices must be made to appease them. The greatest sacrifice was human life. As a rule, these were criminals or prisoners who were forced to fight to the death during the funerals of noble people. However, at critical moments the Etruscans sacrificed their own lives to the gods.

Power and social structure of society

Leisure

The Etruscans loved to participate in fighting competitions and, perhaps, to help other people with housework. The Etruscans also had theater, but it did not become as widespread as, for example, the Attic theater, and the manuscripts found plays not enough for a final analysis.

Toponymy

A number of geographical names are associated with the Etruscans. Tyrrhenian Sea was named so by the ancient Greeks, since it was controlled by the “Tyrrhenians” (Greek name for the Etruscans). Adriatic Sea was named after the Etruscan port city of Adria, which controlled the northern part of this sea. In Rome, the Etruscans were called "Tusci", which was later reflected in the name of the administrative region of Italy Tuscany.

Etruscan language and literature

Family ties Etruscan language are debatable. The compilation of a dictionary of the Etruscan language and the deciphering of texts are progressing slowly and are still far from complete.

Sources

• Dionysius of Halicarnassus. Roman antiquities: In 3 vols. M.: Frontiers XXI, 2005. Series “Historical Library”.
• Titus Livy. History of Rome from the founding of the city. In 3 vols. M.: Science 1989-1994. Series “Monuments of Historical Thought”.
• Plutarch. Comparative biographies: In 3 vols. M.: Nauka, 1961, 1963, 1964. Series “Literary Monuments”.
• Pavel Orozy. History against the pagans. Books I-VII: B B 3 vols. St. Petersburg: Aletheia, 2001-2003. Series "Byzantine Library".

Literature

• Block Ramon. Etruscans. Predictors of the future. M.: Tsentrpoligraf, 2004.
• Bor Matei, Tomazic Ivan. Veneti and Etruscans: at the origins of European civilization: Sat. Art. M.; St. Petersburg: Dr. Franze Preschern, Aletheia, 2008.
• Burian Jan, Moukhova Bogumila. Mysterious Etruscans / Answer. ed. A. A. Neihardt; lane With Czech P. N. Antonova. - M.: The science(GRVL, 1970. - 228 p. - ( In the footsteps of the disappeared cultures of the East). - 60,000 copies.(region)
• Vasilenko R.P. Etruscans and Christian religion // Antique world and archeology. Saratov, 1983. Issue. 5. pp. 15-26.
• Vaughan A. Etruscans. M.: KRON-Press, 1998.
• Gottenrot F. The Kingdom of People. 1994. pp. 35-36.
• Elnitsky L.A. From the latest literature about the Etruscans // Bulletin of ancient history. 1940. No. 3-4. pp. 215-221.
• Zalessky N.N. Etruscans in Northern Italy. L.: Leningrad State University Publishing House, 1959.
• Zalessky N.N. On the history of the Etruscan colonization of Italy in the 7th-4th centuries. BC e. L.: Leningrad State University Publishing House 1965.
• Kondratov A. A. Etruscans - mystery number one. M.: Knowledge, 1977.
• Mavleev E.V. Lukumony // Science and religion.
• Mavleev E.V. Master of “The Judgment of Paris” from Oberlin College in the Hermitage // Communications of the State Hermitage. 1982. Issue. 47. pp. 44-46.
• Mayani Zachary. The Etruscans begin to speak. M.: Nauka, 1966. (Reprint: Mayani Z. In the footsteps of the Etruscans. M.: Veche, 2003).
• McNamara Ellen. Etruscans: Life, religion, culture. M.: Tsentrpoligraf, 2006. Series “Life, Religion, Culture.”
• Lighthouse I. L. Rome of the first kings (Genesis of the Roman polis). M.: Moscow State University Publishing House, 1983.
• Nagovitsyn A.E. Etruscans: Mythology and Religion. M.: Refl-Book, 2000.
• Nemirovsky A.I. Archaeological museums of Tuscany // Bulletin of ancient history. 1992. No. 1. P. 237-244.
• Nemirovsky A.I., Kharsekin A.I. Etruscans. Introduction to Etruscology. Voronezh: Voronezh University Publishing House, 1969.
• Nemirovsky A.I. Etruscans. From myth to history. M.: Nauka, 1983.
• Penny J. Languages ​​of Italy // . T. IV: Persia, Greece and the Western Mediterranean c. 525–479 BC e. Ed. J. Boardman et al. Trans. from English A. V. Zaikova. M., 2011. pp. 852-874. – ISBN 978-5-86218-496-9
• Ridgway D. Etruschi // Cambridge History of the Ancient World. T. IV: Persia, Greece and the Western Mediterranean c. 525–479 BC e. M., 2011. pp. 754-808.
• Robert Jean-Noel. Etruscans. M.: Veche, 2007. (Series “Guides of Civilizations”).
• Sokolov G.I. Etruscan art. M.: Art, 1990.
• Thuillet J.-P. Etruscan Civilization / Trans. from fr. M.: AST, Astrel, 2012. - 254 p. - Series “Historical Library”, 2,000 copies, ISBN 978-5-271-37795-2 , ISBN 978-5-17-075620-3
• Ergon Jacques. Daily life of the Etruscans. M.: Young Guard, 2009. Series “Living History. Everyday life of humanity."
• Etruscans: Italian love of life. M.: TERRA, 1998. Encyclopedia series “Vanished Civilizations”.
• Macnamara E. Everyday life of the etruscans. M., 2006.

see also

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