50. Observed facts confirming the theory of a “hot” Universe.
A physical theory of the evolution of the Universe, which is based on the assumption that before stars, galaxies and other astronomical objects appeared in nature, matter was a rapidly expanding and initially very hot medium. The assumption that the expansion of the Universe began from a “hot” state, when matter was a mixture of various high-energy elementary particles interacting with each other, was first put forward by G.A. Gamov in 1946. Currently, G.V.T. is considered generally accepted. The two most important observational confirmations of this theory are the detection of the cosmic microwave background radiation predicted by the theory, and the explanation of the observed relationship between the relative mass of hydrogen and helium in nature.
51.Methods for determining the chemical composition of stars and planets. The most common chemical elements in the Universe.
Despite the fact that several decades have passed since the first spacecraft was launched into space, most of the celestial objects studied by astronomers are still inaccessible. Meanwhile, enough information has been collected even about the most distant planets of the solar system and their satellites.
Astronomers often have to use remote techniques to study celestial bodies. One of the most common is spectral analysis. Using it, it is possible to determine the approximate chemical composition of the atmosphere of planets and even their surfaces.
The fact is that atoms of various substances emit energy in a certain wavelength range. By measuring the energy that is released in a certain spectrum, specialists can determine their total mass, and, accordingly, the substance that creates the radiation.
However, more often than not, some difficulties arise when determining the exact chemical composition. Atoms of a substance may be in such conditions that their radiation is difficult to observe, so it is necessary to take into account some side factors (for example, the temperature of the object).
Spectral lines help, the fact is that each element has a certain color of the spectrum and when examining some planet (star), well, in general, an object, with the help of special instruments - spectrographs, we can see their emitted color or a series of colors! Then, using a special plate, you can see what substance these lines belong to! ! The science that deals with this is spectroscopy
Spectroscopy is a branch of physics devoted to the study of the spectra of electromagnetic radiation.
Spectral analysis is a set of methods for determining the composition (for example, chemical) of an object, based on the study of the properties of radiation coming from it (in particular, light). It turned out that the atoms of each chemical element have strictly defined resonant frequencies, as a result of which it is at these frequencies that they emit or absorb light. This leads to the fact that in a spectroscope, lines (dark or light) are visible on the spectrum in certain places characteristic of each substance. The intensity of the lines depends on the amount of substance and even its state. In quantitative spectral analysis, the content of the substance under study is determined by the relative or absolute intensities of lines or bands in the spectra. There are atomic and molecular spectral analysis, emission “by emission spectra” and absorption “by absorption spectra”.
Optical spectral analysis is characterized by relative ease of implementation, rapidity, lack of complex sample preparation for analysis, and a small amount of substance (10-30 mg) required for analysis of a large number of elements. Emission spectra are obtained by transferring a substance to a vapor state and excitation of elemental atoms by heating the substance to 1000-10000°C. A spark or an alternating current arc are used as sources of excitation of spectra when analyzing current-conducting materials. The sample is placed in the crater of one of the carbon electrodes. Flames of various gases are widely used to analyze solutions. Spectral analysis is a sensitive method and is widely used in chemistry, astrophysics, metallurgy, mechanical engineering, geological exploration, etc. The method was proposed in 1859 by G. Kirchhoff and R. Bunsen. With its help, helium was discovered on the Sun earlier than on Earth.
Elemental abundance, a measure of how common or rare an element is relative to other elements in a given environment. Abundance in various cases can be measured by mass fraction, mole fraction or volume fraction. The abundance of chemical elements is often represented by clarks.
For example, the mass fraction of oxygen abundance in water is about 89% because it is the fraction of the mass of water that is oxygen. However, the mole fraction abundance of oxygen in water is only 33% because only 1 out of 3 atoms in a water molecule is an oxygen atom. In the Universe as a whole, and in the atmospheres of gas giant planets such as Jupiter, the mass fraction of hydrogen and helium is about 74% and 23-25%, respectively, while the atomic mole fraction of the elements is closer to 92% and 8%.
However, since hydrogen is diatomic and helium is not, in Jupiter's outer atmosphere the molecular mole fraction of hydrogen is about 86% and helium is 13%.
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Of course, in our understanding this is something unified. But it has its own structure and composition. This includes all celestial bodies and objects, matter, energy, gas, dust and much more. All this was formed and exists, regardless of whether we see it or feel it.
Scientists have long been considering the following questions: What formed such a universe? And what elements fill it?
Today we will talk about which element is the most common in the universe.
It turns out that this chemical element is the lightest in the world. In addition, its monatomic form makes up approximately 87% of the total composition of the universe. In addition, it is found in most molecular compounds. Even in water, or, for example, it is part of organic matter. In addition, hydrogen is a particularly important component of acid-base reactions.
In addition, the element is soluble in most metals. Interestingly, hydrogen is odorless, colorless and tasteless.
In the process of studying, scientists called hydrogen a flammable gas.
As soon as they did not define it. At one time he bore the name of the one who gives birth to water, and then the water-making substance.
Only in 1824 was it given the name hydrogen.
Hydrogen makes up 88.6% of all atoms. The rest is mostly helium. And only a small part is other elements.
Consequently, stars and other gases contain mainly hydrogen.
By the way, again it is also present in stellar temperatures. However, in the form of plasma. And in outer space it is presented in the form of molecules, atoms and ions. Interestingly, hydrogen is capable of forming molecular clouds.
Characteristics of hydrogen
Hydrogen is a unique element because it does not have a neutron. It contains only one proton and an electron.
As stated, it is the lightest gas. It is important that the smaller the mass of the molecules, the higher their speed. Even temperature does not affect this.
The thermal conductivity of hydrogen is one of the highest among all gases.
Among other things, it is highly soluble in metals, which affects its ability to diffuse through them. Sometimes the process leads to destruction. For example, the interaction of hydrogen and carbon. In this case, decarbonization occurs.
The emergence of hydrogen
Appeared in the universe after the Big Bang. Like all chemical elements. According to the theory, in the first microseconds after the explosion, the temperature of the universe was above 100 billion degrees. What formed the bond of three quarks. In turn, this interaction created a proton. Thus, the nucleus of the hydrogen atom emerged. During the expansion process, the temperature dropped and quarks formed protons and neutrons. This is how hydrogen actually came into being.
In the interval from 1 to 100 seconds after the formation of the universe, some protons and neutrons combined. Thus forming another element - helium.
Subsequent expansion of space and, as a consequence, a decrease in temperature stopped the connecting reactions. What's important is that they launched again inside the stars. This is how atoms of other chemical elements were formed.
As a result, it turns out that hydrogen and helium are the main engines for the formation of other elements.
Helium is generally the second most abundant element in the universe. Its share is 11.3% of all outer space.
Properties of helium
It, like hydrogen, is odorless, colorless and tasteless. In addition, it is the second lightest gas. But its boiling point is the lowest known.
Helium is an inert, non-toxic and monatomic gas. Its thermal conductivity is high. According to this characteristic, it again ranks second after hydrogen.
Helium is extracted using the separation method at low temperature.
Interestingly, helium was previously considered a metal. But during the study they determined that it was gas. Moreover, the main one in the composition of the universe.
All the elements on Earth, with the exception of hydrogen and helium, were created billions of years ago by the alchemy of stars, some of which are now inconspicuous white dwarfs somewhere on the other side of the Milky Way. The nitrogen in our DNA, the calcium in our teeth, the iron in our blood, the carbon in our apple pies are created in the depths of collapsing stars.
We are created from star matter.
Carl Sagan
Applying elements
Humanity has learned to extract and use chemical elements for their benefit. Thus, hydrogen and helium are used in many fields of activity. For example, in:
- Food Industry;
- metallurgy;
- chemical industry;
- oil refining;
- electronics production;
- cosmetic industry;
- geology;
- even in the military sphere, etc.
As you can see, these elements play an important role in the life of the universe. Obviously, our very existence directly depends on them. We know that there is growth and movement happening every minute. And despite the fact that they are small individually, everything around is based on these elements.
Truly, hydrogen and helium, as well as other chemical elements, are unique and amazing. Perhaps it is impossible to argue with this.
There is the most common chemical element and the most common substance on our amazing planet, and there is the most common chemical element in the vastness of the Universe.
The most abundant chemical element on Earth
On our planet, the leader in abundance is oxygen. It interacts with almost all elements. Its atoms are found in almost all rocks and minerals that form the earth's crust. The modern period of development of chemistry began precisely with the discovery of this important and primary chemical element. The credit for this discovery is shared by Scheele, Priestley and Lavoisier. The debate about which of them is the discoverer has been going on for hundreds of years, and has not yet stopped. But the word “oxygen” itself was introduced into use by Lomonosov.It accounts for a little more than forty-seven percent of the total solid mass of the earth's crust. Bound oxygen makes up almost eighty-nine percent of the mass of fresh and sea water. Free oxygen is found in the atmosphere, making up about twenty-three percent by mass and almost twenty-one percent by volume. At least one and a half thousand compounds in the earth's crust contain oxygen. There are no living cells in the world that do not contain this common element. Sixty-five percent of the mass of every living cell is oxygen.
Today, this substance is obtained industrially from the air and supplied under a pressure of 15 MPa in steel cylinders. There are other ways to get it. Areas of application: food industry, medicine, metallurgy, etc.
Where is the most common element found?
It is almost impossible to find a corner in nature where there is no oxygen. It is everywhere – in the depths, and high above the Earth, and under water, and in the water itself. It is found not only in compounds, but also in a free state. Most likely, it is precisely because of this that this element has always been of interest to scientists. 
Geologists and chemists study the presence of oxygen in combination with all elements. Botanists are interested in studying the processes of plant nutrition and respiration. Physiologists have not fully elucidated the role of oxygen in the life of animals and humans. Physicists are trying to find a new way to use it to create high temperatures.
It is known that no matter whether it is hot southern air or cold air from northern regions, the oxygen content in it is always the same and amounts to twenty-one percent.
How is the most common substance used?
As the most abundant known substance on the planet, water is used everywhere. This substance covers and permeates everything, but it remains little studied. Modern science began to study it in depth relatively recently. Scientists have discovered many of its properties that cannot yet be explained. 
Not a single human economic activity can occur without this most common substance. It is difficult to imagine agriculture or industry without water; nuclear reactors, turbines, and power plants where water is used for cooling will not operate without this substance. For household needs, people use an increasing amount of this substance from year to year. So for a Stone Age man, ten liters of water per day was quite enough. Today, every inhabitant of the Earth collectively uses at least two hundred and twenty liters every day. Humans are made up of eighty percent water; everyone consumes at least one and a half liters of liquid every day.
The most abundant chemical element in the Universe
Three-quarters of the entire Universe is hydrogen, in other words, this is the most common element in the Universe. Water, being the most common substance on our planet, consists of more than eleven percent hydrogen. 
In the earth's crust, hydrogen is one percent by mass, but by the number of atoms it is as much as sixteen percent. Such compounds as natural gases, oil and coal cannot do without the presence of hydrogen.
It should be noted that this common element is extremely rare in the free state. On the surface of our planet, it is present in small quantities in some natural gases, including volcanic ones. There is free hydrogen in the atmosphere, but its presence there is extremely small. It is hydrogen that is the element that creates the radiation inner earth belt, like a flow of protons.
Many stars and the sun are made up of approximately fifty percent hydrogen, where it is present in the form of plasma. Most of the interstellar medium, as well as the gases of nebulae, consists of it. Hydrogen is also present in the atmospheres of planets and comets.
It was identified as a chemical element in 1766. Henry Cavendish did it. Fifteen years later, he found out that the result of the interaction of hydrogen with oxygen is water. The “character” of hydrogen is truly explosive, which is why it received the name explosive gas.
But the largest star in the universe has a diameter of 1,391,000.
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It was a sensation - it turns out that the most important substance on Earth consists of two equally important chemical elements. “AiF” decided to look at the periodic table and remember thanks to what elements and compounds the Universe exists, as well as life on Earth and human civilization.
HYDROGEN (H)
Where it occurs: the most common element in the Universe, its main “building material”. Stars are made of it, including the Sun. Thanks to thermonuclear fusion with the participation of hydrogen, the Sun will warm our planet for another 6.5 billion years.
What is useful: in industry - in the production of ammonia, soap and plastics. Hydrogen energy has great prospects: this gas does not pollute the environment, since when burned it produces only water vapor.
CARBON (C)
Where it occurs: Every organism is largely made of carbon. In the human body this element occupies about 21%. So, our muscles consist of 2/3 of it. In the free state, it occurs in nature in the form of graphite and diamond.
What is useful: food, energy and much more. etc. The class of carbon-based compounds is huge - hydrocarbons, proteins, fats, etc. This element is indispensable in nanotechnology.
NITROGEN (N)
Where it occurs: The Earth's atmosphere is 75% nitrogen. Part of proteins, amino acids, hemoglobin, etc.
What is useful: necessary for the existence of animals and plants. In industry it is used as a gaseous medium for packaging and storage, a refrigerant. With its help, various compounds are synthesized - ammonia, fertilizers, explosives, dyes.
OXYGEN (O)
Where it occurs: The most common element on Earth, it accounts for about 47% of the mass of the solid crust. Sea and fresh waters consist of 89% oxygen, the atmosphere - 23%.
What is useful: Oxygen allows living things to breathe; without it, fire would not be possible. This gas is widely used in medicine, metallurgy, food industry, and energy.
CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2)
Where it occurs: In the atmosphere, in sea water.
What is useful: Thanks to this compound, plants can breathe. The process of absorbing carbon dioxide from the air is called photosynthesis. This is the main source of biological energy. It is worth recalling that the energy that we obtain from burning fossil fuels (coal, oil, gas) has been accumulated in the depths of the earth over millions of years thanks to photosynthesis.
IRON (Fe)
Where it occurs: one of the most common elements in the solar system. The cores of the terrestrial planets consist of it.
What is useful: metal used by humans since ancient times. The whole historical era was called the Iron Age. Now up to 95% of global metal production comes from iron, which is the main component of steels and cast irons.
SILVER (Ag)
Where it occurs: One of the scarce elements. Previously found in nature in native form.
What is useful: From the middle of the 13th century it became a traditional material for making tableware. It has unique properties, therefore it is used in various industries - in jewelry, photography, electrical engineering and electronics. The disinfecting properties of silver are also known.
GOLD (Au)
Where it occurs: Previously found in nature in native form. It is mined in the mines.
What is useful: the most important element of the global financial system, since its reserves are small. It has long been used as money. Currently, all bank gold reserves are assessed
32 thousand tons - if you fuse them together, you get a cube with a side of only 12 m. It is used in medicine, microelectronics, and nuclear research.
SILICON (Si)
Where it occurs: In terms of prevalence in the earth's crust, this element ranks second (27-30% of the total mass).
What is useful: Silicon is the main material for electronics. Also used in metallurgy and in the production of glass and cement.
WATER (H2O)
Where it occurs: Our planet is 71% covered with water. The human body consists of 65% of this compound. There is water in outer space, in the bodies of comets.
Why it’s useful: It is of key importance in the creation and maintenance of life on Earth, because due to its molecular properties it is a universal solvent. Water has many unique properties that we don’t think about. So, if it did not increase in volume when freezing, life simply would not have arisen: reservoirs would freeze to the bottom every winter. And so, as it expands, the lighter ice remains on the surface, maintaining a viable environment underneath.
the most abundant substance on earth
Alternative descriptionsMelted Ice
The most common liquid on earth
Transparent colorless liquid
. "It's not beer that kills people, it's people..."
. "Off a duck's back..."
. "Don't spill..."
. "Under a lying stone... it doesn't flow"
. "ash two O"
. “It lives in seas and rivers, but often flies across the sky, and when it gets bored of flying, it falls to the ground again” (riddle)
. “quiet... the shores are washing away” (last)
. “subtle matter” that found itself on the first step of the “ladder of nature”, built in the 18th century by the Swiss naturalist Charles Bonnet
You are life
65% of the human body
Without her, “neither here nor here”
There is no life without her
Most vodka
They usually hide the ends in it
The most important inorganic substance for us
Vodka without alcohol
Vodka without alcohol
Hydrogen+ oxygen
Second to water and copper pipes
Carbonated...
Hot and cold in the tap
Kills people, unlike beer
Destroyer of people (song)
Distilled...
Jewel in the Desert
Friends, don't spill...
They don’t pound it in a mortar
It waters the garden and vegetable garden
Liquid cradle of life
Liquid
Liquid without taste, color or odor
Liquid in the bath
The liquid that flows in empty speeches
Liquid that has leaked a lot
Liquid necessary for the existence of all living things
What is a snowflake made of?
It was in this drop that the Roman sages advised to look “if you want to know the world.”
What coolant is usually used to cool a boiling reactor?
The stone sharpens
Painting by Russian artist S. Chuikov "Live..."
Well...
Concrete component
Vodka component
There is too much in vodka, according to drunkards
The best remedy for thirst
Flowing from the tap
An insignificant component of vodka
Mineralka
Mineral in a bottle
Mineral, carbonated
Muddy after ice drift
We drink it and bathe in it
We drink it and enjoy it
Pour into a bucket or glass
Pour into a kettle to boil
Filler for baths and seas
A prerequisite for life
One of the most common substances in nature
It turns out that you can get out of it dry
Deuterium oxide or heavy...
It flows in empty speeches
It can flow or it can drip
It does not flow under a lying stone
The basis of all life on Earth
The basis of life
Fresh milk in the night lake
Partner of fire and copper pipes
Drinking union of two gases
Rain Flesh
Flesh of the sea
According to the French chemist Leonel, the molecule of this substance resembles a peach with two apricots attached to its sides
The herbal liqueur "Danzig Gold...", popular in Germany, contains tiny particles of gold leaf.
Fresh...
Fresh in the lake
Fresh in the pond
Fresh liquid in a pond
A transparent, colorless liquid that is a chemical compound of hydrogen and oxygen
Flow in Jacuzzi
Hide and seek for ends
Melted Ice
Fish habitat
Escaped from the bucket
Seventh liquid on jelly
Seventh on jelly
Liquefied ice
According to the Kazakh proverb, without flaw only God, without dirt - only she
Contents. sieve according to the saying
Contents of the clepsydra
Contents of the river and sea
Contents of the samovar
Salty in the sea
Salty moisture of the sea
Salty sea...
Rescue from thirst
This is the name for the linear part of the distance for one boat
Shower turnover
Faucet leaking
What fish "breathe"
Something that won't spoil true friendship
What they carry to the offended
What is poured from the tap
Outdated ancient constellation
Quenches thirst
Film by A. A. Rowe "Fire, ... and Copper Pipes"
A chemical substance without which neither a person nor an animal can survive long.
Chemical substance in the form of a clear liquid
Walks without legs, sleeves without arms, mouth without speech (riddle)
How to dilute alcohol
What in Taoism has become a symbol of the triumph of visible weakness over strength
What boils in a samovar
What measured time in the ancient clepsydra
Not boiling. tea without sugar and tea leaves
Partner of fire and copper pipes
Don't drink it off your face, as the saying goes.
Contents of the cistern
