The value of Russian literature of the 19th century. General characteristics of Russian literature of the XIX century

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1. World significance and national identity of Russian literature of the XIX century. Your opinion about the works known to you on this issue. When studying what school topics can you use the methodology for solving the above problem?

In Russia in the 19th century, an unprecedented rise in literature takes place and is included on an equal footing in the cultural process. This era is usually characterized as the "golden age", the time of the flourishing of creativity and the birth of philosophical thought, the formation of the Russian literary language, which took shape largely thanks to A.S. Pushkin. Literary centrism is an important feature. On the works of writers of that time, we learn humanity, patriotism, we study our history. More than one generation of people - Humans - has grown up on this "classic". Romanticism becomes the leading artistic method, although at the end of the 30s of the 19th century, realism will take the leading place in literature.

Russian literature is distinguished by its humaneness, purposefulness and humanity, which seeks to express its opinion. In Russia, philosophy is individual. One of the main problems is the problem of morality; each author has his own solutions to this problem. Moral issues became the main one, and almost all Russian writings converged on the formation of lofty ideals. High in Russia is the overcoming of egoism and individualism. And the high active heroic those for Russian writers are the most demanding attitude. In Russia it has never been possible to live a separate destiny. Russian society is always collective. Russ liter is characterized by the choice of morals for oneself and for the whole world. Russ the author showed life in communion with the whole world. This is connected with the epic thinking of Russian heroes, the heroes of Gogol Tolstoy always communicate with the nation. This soil was favorable for the development of novels. Russ novels have had a major impact on the west. The heroes were colossal, they were not familiar to the reader, the Russians knew how to deal with the question of being. But the essence and the reverse moment when the authors penetrated into the national. In order to consider this issue in more detail, one can refer to the work of Kasyanova “Russian national character” in the book, she says that a Russian person is characterized by a value orientation, for example, the ability to achieve a goal. Russia and the West have different goals in life. The idea of ​​cultivating high feelings and ideals is high, and high is selfishness.

The world significance of literature is closely connected with national identity: romantics turn to national events, since the 19th century is the century of epoch-making events on a global scale (the war of 1812), these are changes in public consciousness, a pronounced spirit of patriotism. The reforms of 1861 lead to a polarization of social consciousness and a sense of personality finds its expression in the images of literature. For example, the era of Decembrism gives rise to the ideal of a free person, thus the theme of a free person becomes central. The activity of writers was not limited to their subjective spiritual world: they actively showed interest in social life, folklore works and interacted with foreign writers. Therefore, the literature of the 19th century carries a global coverage of the entire socio-political life of that time and reflects the worldview of its era. National identity is reflected in the typology of portraits of people, the generalization of their vices and pronounced personality traits: 1) In the center of the liter. 19 in the problem of growing a sense of personality: the image of a young man does not satisfy the modern way of life 2). A.S. Pushkin and N.V. Gogol identified the main artistic types that would be developed by writers throughout the 19th century. This is the artistic type of the “superfluous person”, an example of which is Eugene Onegin in the novel by A.S. Pushkin, and the so-called type of "little man", which is shown by N.V. Gogol in his story "The Overcoat", as well as A.S. Pushkin in the story "The Stationmaster".

3).National atmosphere in literature, the development of the Russian national character

4). Condemnation by the writers of the isolation of the intelligentsia from the people, as isolation from their roots. 5). the ideal of personality - the ratio of one personality to the existence of the whole people (lack of egocentrism, self-will)

6) the writer's attention to psychological and social analysis. You can also refer to the work of Belinsky's view of the Russian liter. At school, this question can be used in introductory Russian lessons of the 19th century. For example, maybe such a topic as thin liters as an art form

2. Problems of periodization of Russian literature of the 19th century. What starting point do you prefer to take as the basis for the periodization of the work of writers studied in the 9th grade?

The purpose of periodization is not the creation of a rigid scheme, but the designation of a number of main landmarks at each stage of the literary movement.

The 19th century began with the formation of romanticism. The ideological prerequisites of romanticism are disappointment in the Great French Revolution in bourgeois civilization in general (in its vulgarity, prosaic, lack of spirituality). The mood of hopelessness, despair, "world sorrow" is the disease of the century, inherent in the heroes of Chateaubriand, Byron, Musset. At the same time, they are characterized by a sense of hidden wealth and boundless possibilities of being. Poetry works by poets E.A. Baratynsky, K.N. Batyushkova, V.A. Zhukovsky, A.A. Feta, D.V. Davydova, N.M. Yazykov. Creativity F.I. Tyutchev ". Nevertheless, the central figure of this time was Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin - Russian poetry of the 19th century was closely connected with the social and political life of the country. Poets tried to comprehend the idea of ​​their special purpose. The poet in Russia was considered a conductor of divine truth, a prophet. Youth determines the subsequent paths of development of the character of a mature person - this is the significance of this age for human life as a historical whole. 2nd period. In the 2nd half of the 10s, a new revolutionary-romantic trend was born in RL, the cat reaches a rise in the 1st half of the 20s in the TV-ve of Pushkin and the Decembrist poets. The ideological and TV originality of the revolution of romanticism is associated with historical events (a revolution that developed the ideals of freedom, brotherhood and equality)

Since the middle of the 19th century, the formation of Russian realistic literature has been taking place, which has been created against the background of the tense socio-political situation that developed in Russia during the reign of Nicholas I. There is a need to create a realistic literature that is sharply responsive to the socio-political situation in the country. Literary critic V.G. Belinsky marks a new realistic trend in literature. His position is being developed by N.A. Dobrolyubov, N.G. Chernyshevsky. A dispute arises between Westernizers and Slavophiles about the paths of Russia's historical development. Writers turn to the socio-political problems of Russian reality. The genre of the realistic novel is developing. Their works are created by I.S. Turgenev, F.M. Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy, I.A. Goncharov. Socio-political and philosophical problems prevail. Literature is distinguished by a special psychologism.

Second half of the 19th century and was the heyday of Russian critical realism. In the mid-1950s, Russia experienced an unusually powerful social upsurge. The tsarist government was forced to start preparing a peasant reform, around which an ideological, political and literary struggle unfolded.

The critical activity of Chernyshevsky and his closest collaborator Dobrolyubov contributed to the penetration of progressive, emancipatory ideas into literature and the further development of realism. In an atmosphere of public enthusiasm, intense ideological struggle, Russian realist writers created an unprecedented number of outstanding works of art. In these works, in the full sense of the word, classical, the characteristic features of Russian literature were most clearly woven: high civic feelings, the breadth of the depiction of life, and the deep disclosure of its contradictions. Mercilessly exposing the oppressors of the people - landowners, bourgeois businessmen, high-ranking officials, Russian writers contrasted them with working people in whom something did not kill the best human qualities: diligence and selflessness, sincerity and spiritual purity.

The literary process of the late 19th century discovered the names of N.S. Leskova, A.N. Ostrovsky A.P. Chekhov. The latter proved to be a master of a small literary genre - a story, as well as an excellent playwright. Competitor A.P. Chekhov was Maxim Gorky. The end of the 19th century was marked by the formation of pre-revolutionary sentiments. The realist tradition was beginning to fade. It was replaced by the so-called decadent literature

3. Features of the literary life of the 1810s

In the 1810s - eclicism - a mixture of literature. current: sentimentalism, classicism, romanticism. Zhukovsky as the founder of psychological romanticism. An important factor influencing the work of romanticists in the 1810s was the creation by Karamzin of a reform on the Russian word, where the writer sought to add plasticity and sophistication to the Russian language, introducing foreign borrowings into everyday life, replacing Church Slavonic vocabulary. Poetic works of poets E.A. Baratynsky, K.N. Batyushkova, V.A. Zhukovsky, Byron, A.A. Feta, D.V. Davydova, N.M. Yazykov. Creativity F.I. Tyutchev's "Golden Age" of Russian poetry was completed.

The main event of this period is the development of romanticism. The first third of the 19th century is called the "golden age" of Russian culture. Its beginning coincided with the era of classicism in Russian literature and art. In the first decades of the century, poetry was the leading genre in Russian literature. A.S. Pushkin became a symbol of his era. Rapid rise in the cultural development of Russia. The rise of general life causes the rapid growth of journalism. There are many new magazines. There are literary circles that contributed to the aesthetic. self-determination. There is an ideological struggle going on. There are no masterpieces, but letters and memoirs of poets say that it was a turbulent era. The mass lit-ra is developing especially

4. I.A. Krylov the fabulist. The people of Krylov's fables

Next to romanticism, the educational stream in Russian literature continued to live and develop, represented by Krylov's fables. The author was interested not so much in the personal experiences of a person as in the social and social organism that caused these experiences. Man was considered by him as a social, not a private individual. Krylov dared to make the people's consciousness the highest value in his artistic system: he has the common sense of the people - the subject of artistic expression, the supreme judge, who makes a wise, sparklingly cheerful or destroying sentence of reality. a kind of field that emotionally affects the consciousness of the protagonist)

In the note “On the Preface to the Translation of Krylov’s Fables,” Pushkin pointed to “the cheerful cunning of the mind, mockery and picturesque way of expressing himself” as “a distinctive feature in our morals” and in this sense he considered Krylov “representative of the spirit” of the Russian people. Indeed, the ironic intonation of the narrative is one of the most important features of his fables.

The problem of the people put forward before the Russian writers the task of overcoming the class limitations of their worldview and moving to the position of "people's opinion".

Most consistently and impressively, the nationality of Krylov’s creativity manifested itself in fables dedicated to the Patriotic War of 1812 (“Crow and Chicken”, “Wolf in the kennel”, “Pike and Cat”, “Section”, “Convoy”, “Cat and Cook”) . Krylov, long before L. Tolstoy, opposed the official version of the victories over Napoleon with his interpretation of them from the standpoint of folk morality. It is no coincidence that in the fable "Chizh and the Hedgehog" (1814), with sly simplicity, he refused to "sing" the merits of Alexander I in the victory over the invasion, glorifying Kutuzov as a people's commander.

The uniqueness of fables in their very idea is only to slightly push a person to independently analyze and think carefully about what the essence is, who is right and wrong, and why it actually happened. The typicality of the images created by Krylov, the versatility of satire, the author's observation ability, the ability to convey the stable features of the human character, the true nationality made his fables immortal. From the fact that Krylov's works are completely devoid of high philosophy and are more like fairy tales, the meaning of the fables concerns the most ordinary situations in our life. This quality of stories makes them so useful for reflection: after all, it is only through "everyday" simple examples that one can see something deeper.

The consciousness of a Russian person was illuminated by Krylov not from the height of the "theories" of learned sages, but by the moral experience of the people, that is, the experience of everyone, without distinction of estates and titles, for any person is part of the past, present and future history. Reading Krylov's fables, people willingly learned to understand themselves. The fables of Ivan Krylov are really written in an accessible folk language, which, however, does not deprive them of the richness of artistic and expressive means, with the help of which the beauty of the literary Russian language is revealed. Krylov entered their homes and hearts. From a writer known to literary circles, he immediately, suddenly became "his own" throughout Russia. Thanks to the light comical language, Krylov's stories are accessible to everyone and are positively assimilated by the public. Probably, this is due to the special benevolent proximity to the people and the absence of unnecessary intricate storylines.

5. The controversy between "archaists" and "innovators" on the issue of the Russian literary language at the beginning of the 19th century

Karamzin's prose and poetry had a decisive influence on the development of the Russian literary language. Karamzin deliberately refused to use Church Slavonic vocabulary and grammar, bringing the language of his works to the everyday language of his era and using French grammar and syntax as a model. Karamzin introduced many new words into the Russian language - as neologisms ("charity", "love", "freethinking", "attraction", "responsibility", "suspicion", "industry", "refinement", "first-class", " humane"), and barbarisms ("sidewalk", "coachman"). He was also one of the first to use the letter Y. Possessing an extraordinary stylistic flair, he introduced into the Russian language such barbarisms (direct borrowings of foreign words) that organically took root in it: civilization, era, moment, catastrophe, serious, aesthetic, moral, pavement, etc .;

The changes in the language proposed by Karamzin caused a heated controversy in the 1810s. The writer A. S. Shishkov, with the assistance of Derzhavin, founded in 1811 the society “Conversation of the Lovers of the Russian Word”, the purpose of which was to promote the “old” language, as well as to criticize Karamzin, Zhukovsky and their followers. In response, in 1815, the literary society "Arzamas" was formed, which sneered at the authors of "Conversations" and parodied their works. Many poets of the new generation became members of the society, including Batyushkov, Vyazemsky, Davydov, Zhukovsky, Pushkin. The literary victory of "Arzamas" over "Conversation" strengthened the victory of the language changes introduced by Karamzin.

Sometimes Shishkov's criticism of him was apt and precise. Shishkov was outraged by the evasiveness and aesthetic covetousness in the speeches of Karamzin and the "Karamzinists": he believed that instead of the expression "when travel became a need of my soul," one could simply say: "when I fell in love with traveling"; In defiance of Karamzinskaya, Shishkov proposed his own reform of the Russian language: he believed that the concepts and feelings missing in our everyday life should be denoted by new words formed from the roots not of French, but of Russian and Old Slavonic languages. An Old Believer, an admirer of the language of Lomonosov, He advocated the return of literature to oral folk art, to folk vernacular, to Orthodox Church Slavonic literature. He reproached the "Karamzinists" for having succumbed to the temptation of European revolutionary false teachings. He considered the style of the language a sign of the author's ideological affiliation.

It seemed to Shishkov that Karamzin's language reform was unpatriotic and even anti-religious.

Where there is no faith in the hearts, there is no piety in the tongue. Where there is no love for the fatherland, there the language does not express domestic feelings. And since Karamzin reacted negatively to the abundance of Church Slavonic words in the Russian language, Shishkov argued that Karamzin's innovations distorted his noble majestic simplicity. Shishkov reproached Karamzin for the immoderate use of barbarisms (epoch, harmony, enthusiasm, catastrophe), neologisms disgusted him, artificial words cut his ear: present, future, well-read.

6. The ideological and artistic originality of the work of the Radishchev poets, their contribution to the development of Russian classicism. Analysis of one poem (at the student's choice).

The classicists saw the goal of art in the knowledge of truth, which acts as an ideal of beauty. They put forward a method to achieve it, based on the three central categories of their aesthetics: reason, pattern, taste. All these categories were considered objective criteria of artistry. From the point of view of the classicists, great works are not the fruit of talent, not inspiration, not artistic imagination, but stubbornly following the dictates of reason, studying the classical works of antiquity and knowing the rules of taste. Thus, they bring artistic activity closer to scientific activity. That is why the rationalistic method of the French philosopher René Descartes (1596-1650), which became the basis of artistic knowledge in classicism, turned out to be acceptable to them. Descartes argued that the human mind has innate ideas, the truth of which is not in doubt. Thus, the mind becomes the central concept of the philosophy of rationalism, and then the art of classicism. The weak side of this idea was the absence of a dialectical view. The world was considered motionless, consciousness and the ideal are unchanged.

Character. In the art of classicism, attention is paid not to the particular, individual, random, but to the general, typical. Therefore, the character of the hero in literature does not have individual features, acting as a generalization of a whole type of people. Main conflict. The category of reason turns out to be central in the formation of a new type of artistic conflict discovered by classicism: the conflict between reason, duty to the state - and feeling, personal needs, passions. No matter how this conflict is resolved - by the victory of reason and duty (as in Corneille) or the victory of passions (as in Racine), only a citizen who puts his duty to the state above private life is the ideal of the classicists.

The rights of the human person, political and social freedom, the nation, nationality - all these great ideas, reflecting the changes in historical reality on the pass from feudalism to capitalism and outlined in the literature of the 18th century, have now become its main content. They demanded for themselves new forms of artistic expression. In 1801, after the return of A.N. Radishchev from exile, a circle of young like-minded people formed around him - “The Free Society of Lovers of Literature, Sciences and Arts” - I.P. Pnin, V.V. Popugaev, I.M. Born, A.Kh. Vostokov and others. They entered the history of literature under the name of Radishchev poets. They had their own magazine "Northern Messenger" and an almanac "Scroll of the Muses". At various times, N.I. collaborated with the Free Society ... Gnedich, K.N. Batyushkov and other writers. The outlook and activities of the Radishchev poets were of an educational nature. They were staunch followers and heirs of both the French and Russian Enlightenment of the 18th century. Members of the "Free Society ..." stood up for respect for the human person, for strict observance of the laws, for a fair trial. The citizen, in their opinion, had the right to think freely and fearlessly affirm Truth and Virtue.

In their creative activity, the Radishchev poets were committed to the traditions of classicism. Their favorite poetic genres were an ode, a message, an epigram. and with the poetics of classicism.

Hence, in Pnin's philosophical lyrics, its wide, universal frame, cosmism and allegorism of its images; from classicism in the poetics of the Radishchevites and the solemn flow of verse, measured pathos of poetic syntax, high abstract vocabulary. Pnin's philosophical ode ("Man") is, as it were, a majestic oratorio,

Classicism as a style is a system of figurative and expressive means that typify reality through the prism of antique samples, perceived as an ideal of harmony, simplicity, unambiguity, and ordered symmetry. Thus, this style reproduces only the rationalistically ordered outer shell of ancient culture, without conveying its pagan, complex and indivisible essence. Not in the antique dress, but in the expression of the view of the world of a man of the absolutist era lies the essence of the style of classicism. It is distinguished by clarity, monumentality, the desire to remove all unnecessary, to create a single and integral impression.

7. The emergence and development of Russian romanticism. Its aesthetic essence and main currents. Which of the works that ambiguously resolve the issue of the genesis and essence of romanticism is close to you?

“In the 1820s. romanticism became the main event of literary life, struggle, the center of revival and noisy journal-critical controversy in Russia. Romanticism in Russia was formed before the country was to enter the period of bourgeois transformations. It reflected the disappointment of the Russian people in the existing order. It expressed the social forces that began to awaken, the desire for the growth of public self-awareness, ”Gurevich says about the emergence of romanticism in Russia in his book“ Romanticism in Russian Literature ”.

Maimin in his book “On Russian Romanticism” says that Russian romanticism was part of European romanticism, therefore, in Russian romanticism there are signs of European romanticism, but Russian romanticism also has its own origins. Namely, the war of 1812, its consequences for Russian life and self-awareness. “She showed,” Maimin writes, “the strength and greatness of the common people.” This was the basis for dissatisfaction with the slave way of life of the common people, and, as a result, for romantic and Decembrist moods.

The first who tried to make out what romanticism was were Pushkin and Ryleev, later the treatise of Georgievsky and Galich appears. In the works of Veselovsky, romanticism is seen as a manifestation of liberalism. Zamotin believes that romanticism is a manifestation, an expression of the idealistic in literature. Sipovsky defines romanticism as the individualism of the era. Sokurin says that this is irrealism. In 1957 there was a discussion on the problems of realism. On this soil appeared. collections and monographs on romanticism. One of the works is Sokolov's article "On the debate about romanticism", in which the author gives different points of view on romanticism and draws a not unimportant conclusion: each of the definitions contains a grain of truth, but not one of them "does not constitute a feeling of complete satisfaction" , because they are trying to define romanticism "by one of its attributes." Meanwhile, “all attempts to cover romanticism with some single formula will inevitably give an impoverished, one-sided, and therefore incorrect idea of ​​this literary phenomenon. It is necessary to reveal the system of signs of romanticism and to determine the phenomenon under study according to this system. And here, in turn, Mann makes his remark: the insufficiency of any differentiated approach to romanticism, the need to “reveal the system of signs” are correctly noted by Sokolov, but at the same time he does not explain the concept of systemicity as such. The idea of ​​romanticism, at the same time, will not become truer if we judge it "not on one basis", but on a number of grounds. There is no obligation in their enumeration: it can be interrupted and resumed at any time. Each new feature is on the same plane as all the previous ones, while the binding nature of their connection would be achieved only if we could penetrate "through them" into the very organization of the artistic phenomenon. Here it is impossible not to note Volkov's introductory article to the book "History of Russian Romanticism", in which the author sets himself the task of clarifying the concept of "romanticism" and "romance" taking into account various national literatures, referring to various works on romanticism, including Sokolov's article cited above. The ambiguity and contradictory nature of the theory and history of romanticism, he relates "more to the history of this problem than to the current state of its scientific solution." He says that many terms of romanticism have already disappeared, lost their significance, and, brushing aside them, he comes to the conclusion that in modern literary criticism there are only two meanings of the term "romanticism". One of them is "the concept of romanticism as the 'transformative' side of any truly artistic creation." This concept is most consistently and fully set out in the textbook by L.I. Timofeev "Fundamentals of the theory of literature". Volkov, in turn, says that although Timofeev’s theory of realism-romanticism affirms the unity of objective and subjective content in art, the cognitive and transformative functions of artistic creativity, the choice of the term “romanticism” to designate the transformative side of artistic creativity is clearly arbitrary. He explains this by the fact that the transforming side can be called sentimentalism, and expressionism and intellectualism, - after all, these terms, no less than romanticism, indicate precisely the subjective side of artistic creativity, and then the entire diversity of artistic creativity can be replaced by one of its specific historical forms. And then, within the framework of this theory, the term “romance” is more suitable (along with tragedy, satire, etc.). “One thing remains, the generally accepted meaning of the term “romanticism,” continues Sokolov, “that refers to the artistic system generated at the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries, and which in the first third of the 19th century constituted an entire era in the artistic development of mankind. The disputes that are going on at the present time about romanticism relate mainly to this, proper romantic art, and to the question of the possibility and existence of such art in subsequent times and in our days. Gurevich in his book “Romanticism in Russian Literature” writes: “Romanticism is a revolution in art. The era of romanticism itself is revolutionary, it is a time of great disappointments and expectations, a time of decisive changes in people's minds. Then he continues: “A characteristic feature of romanticism is dissatisfaction with reality, sometimes deep disappointment in it, deep doubt that life can be built on the principles of goodness, reason, justice. From here arises the dream of the reorganization of the world and man, the passionate desire for sublime idealization. “The unprecedented sharpness of the real and the ideal gives rise to a tense, tragic experience. This dual world is a defining feature of Romantic art.” Maimin also believes that romanticism is based on disappointment in reality. He considers the opposition of dreams and reality, of what is possible and what is, to be the deep primal point of romanticism. Gulyaev believes that romanticism and realism are two facets of the process of the subject (rom) and the object (real. ). P - the phenomenon of a cat occurs in a certain era, passes a certain stage and its time can be accurately determined. The time of occurrence is the 10s, the end is 30. Burevich believes that Russian romanticism arises by the 30s, i.e. Zhukovsky, Batyushkov, Ryleev, Yazykov, Pushkin, and others are not romantics. There is a problem with currents.

Maimin in his monograph "On Russian Romanticism" writes that romanticism is a phenomenon that is understood and interpreted by the romantics themselves in different ways. Here we can see an explanation of why there are various trends in Russian romanticism. Gukovsky can see several areas of romanticism. The first is represented by Zhukovsky and Batyushkov. They, as Guuovsky said, are the founders of Russian romanticism. Although the romanticism of both Zhukovsky and Batyushkov is quite different, their works have one, not unimportant feature: they do not carry any revolutionary ideas that encourage a change in the world. Both poets create their own, truly romantic world, and prefer to live in it without trying to bring their ideal into reality. This is a significant difference from Decembrist or civil, revolutionary romanticism, which, on the contrary, while creating the image of an ideal world, wanted to embody it in reality, from where revolutionary ideas and appeals came from. Bright representatives of this trend are Ryleev, Küchelbeker, Bestuzhev-Marlinsky and others. The tragedy of December 25, 1825 on Senate Square smashed the Decembrist ideas about life and changed their work as such. The work of Pushkin the romanticist can be defined as a separate trend in romanticism, because, despite the fact that at the beginning of his career, “Pushkin was a supporter of revolutionary upheaval,” he, nevertheless, was not a Decembrist. “Pushkin,” as Gukovsky writes in his book “Pushkin and the Problems of Realistic Style,” “began his journey as a collector and unifier of contradictions and various currents of Russian romanticism.” And, going forward in his evolution, Pushkin quite quickly moves from romanticism to realism. He makes this transition much earlier than his "brothers in the pen." Turning to the fourth and last direction of romanticism, we should return to the catastrophe of December 25, 1825, which, as mentioned above, destroyed the Decembrists' ideas about life. The search for a new concept of reality begins, painful reflections. The work of this trend is characterized by a complex relationship of romanticism and realism in the work of writers. The peaks of this direction are Lermontov, Gogol's prose, Tyutchev's lyrics.

Since Oermontov Gogol, Tyutchev cover different things in life, they have different paths, different ideas about ideals, then this is one whole direction, it can be divided into several more sub-directions so that confusion and misconceptions are not created. Maimin proposes a different, but still somewhat similar to the previous, classification of the directions of romanticism: 1) Zhukovsky's romanticism, characteristic of the early stage of Russian romanticism, is defined as contemplative; 2) the civil, revolutionary romanticism of the Decembrists, in particular Ryleev, Kochelbeker, Merlinsky-Bestuzhev; 4) Lermontov's romanticism is also synthetic, but differently from Pushkin's. Lermontov develops the tragic nature of the second and third directions and the rebellious romanticism of Byron; 5) philosophical romanticism. Represented by Vezevitov, Totchev, prose philosophical works of Vl. Odoevsky. Another classification of the directions of romanticism is presented by Focht: 1) abstract psychological (Zhukovsky and Kozlov); 2) hedonic (Batyushkov); 3) civil (Pushkin, Ryleev); 4) philosophical (Venivitov, Varatynsky, Vl. Odoevsky); 5) synthetic romanticism - the pinnacle of Russian romanticism (Lermontov); 6) epigones of psychological romanticism (Benedictov, for example); 7) “false romantics” (Kukolnik, late Polevoy, Zagoskin). Maimin considers this classification not very convenient due to excessive fragmentation.

Thus, having considered the main points of view on the emergence of romanticism, its essence and main currents, one can come to the conclusion that there is a very controversial opinion about romanticism. Of the works that ambiguously resolve the issue of the genesis and essence of romanticism, Gurevich's work "Romanticism in Russian Literature" is closest to me.

8. Historical and literary significance of V.A. Zhukovsky. Genre and style originality of his lyrics

Criticism about Zhukovsky.

In Russian science, there was a dispute about the historical assessment of Zhukovsky's work. Was he an innovator progressively moving Russian literature forward? (Zhukovsky is a romantic). Was he a conservative in his poetry, even a reactionary, dragging Russian literature into the yesterday of sentimentalism of the 18th century? Belinsky speaks about this in his work. Our contemporaries agree with his opinion. Firstly, Zhukovsky is a romantic, even the founder, the head of Russian romanticism. Secondly, Pushkin's predecessor, necessary and positive in his historical role. Pushkin considered Zhukovsky his teacher.

Although Zhukovsky's romanticism was devoid of activity, the preaching of liberalism and the struggle against reaction, it was by no means a reactionary phenomenon in its essence. The world of Zhukovsky's poetry is dreamy. It is to this dreamy world that Zhukovsky strives to fly away with his soul from the despicable world of reality. He is a poet of his visions, not a poet of reality. It was in this that Pushkin saw something acceptable for progressive poetry.

Stylistic originality of the lyrics.

The essence and idea of ​​Zhukovsky's style, his poetry is the idea of ​​a romantic personality. Zhukovsky opened the human soul to Russian poetry, continuing Karamzin's psychological searches in prose and resolutely deepening them. The psychological romanticism of Zhukovsky perceives the whole world through the problems of introspection. He sees in the individual soul not even a reflection of the whole world, but the whole world, the whole reality in itself.

The personality in Zhukovsky's poetry is either alone, or finds understanding among the few who share her feelings. Loneliness does not turn her away from the whole world. The soul of the poet is immense, and it contains the whole universe. Zhukovsky accepts life even with its sufferings and sorrows, because they contribute to the moral exaltation of a person. He believes that the beautiful and sublime in man will win. Their triumph will come beyond the limits of earthly existence, in that eternal life where the Kingdom of Heaven is located. In Zhukovsky's system, lyrical truth is the highest and even the only truth. And the objective world is only an ephemeral appearance and the logic of judgments about it is a lie. Being here, the soul is torn to the beautiful there. Such a bifurcation into the otherworldly, afterlife, ideal and imperfect, vain, transient, bifurcation, characteristic not only of Zhukovsky, but of all romanticism, is called romantic duality. This means that the soul of a romantic simultaneously resides in two worlds - the real and the unreal.

A person in Zhukovsky's poetry thinks of himself separately from the state, because he does not fully accept and even denies the concepts that have developed in the state. Zhukovsky is convinced that the goal of mankind is to improve its nature, and the meaning of human life is to educate oneself sincere, sensitive and sensitive to other people's suffering, troubles and misfortunes.

The happiness of a person, and therefore the meaning of his life, according to Zhukovsky, is not in external interest, but in himself, in the strength of his soul, in the wealth of thoughts and feelings. The more human the person and the more such people, the happier the state. It is necessary not to suppress or subdue passions, but to improve your spiritual world. For Zhukovsky, a person is not a means to achieve some goals that are extraneous to him, even the most necessary, useful and noble ones, but he himself is the goal of the historical process. Not a person for the state, but the state for a person - this is the motto of Zhukovsky.

The unity of the lyrical hero in Zhukovsky's work entailed the unity of style. Zhukovsky's works are united by referring them to the personality of the author, who at the same time is the hero of the work. This also applies to ballads, where there is no lyrical "I", where the characters are different, but where the true hero is still the poet himself, who tells the legend, whose dream and mood is the content of the ballad.

Contemporaries considered Zhukovsky a master of landscape poetry. His landscape is subjective. Zhukovsky's depiction of nature is a "landscape of the soul". Zhukovsky draws a soul that perceives nature; his landscape is associated with a specific psychological state. The poet merges the landscape and his experience. A strong connection arises between them, but not abstractly logical, but concretely psychological.

It uses a special semantic content of the word, which begins to mean much more than it means terminologically, other meanings, other sounds appear. Thus, the impression was created that the meaning of a verse is born not in words, but, as it were, between words, that is, not in the text itself, but in the mind of the reader - a phenomenon of suggestive poetry.

Genre originality of lyrics.

Elegy, romance song, and friendly message are the main genres of Zhukovsky's poetry. On the material of the elegy, Zhukovsky developed the Russian poetic language. The elegy especially attracted him with its theme, fixed by the all-European tradition: immersion in the inner world, dreamy and - later - mystical perception of nature. Zhukovsky is the first Russian poet who managed not only to embody in verse the real colors, sounds and smells of nature - everything that makes up its “material beauty”, but to endow nature with a feeling and thought, a person who perceives it, this is how the elegy “Evening” is built - a masterpiece of Zhukovsky’s early lyrics. “The past” is one of J.'s favorite “verbal” themes. He always turns to the past, but such a conditional and almost banal theme of poetry acquires a deep emotional meaning for him. Zh.'s songs and romances have an amazing musical organization. Full accord, melodic transitions of percussive sounds dominate. The poet devotes a great place in his songs to the development of intonation. Interrogative intonations are characteristic of this genre. It should be noted a purely song system of exclamations and appeals. Such elegies as "Evening", "Rural Cemetery", "Sea", etc. are famous.

In the second half of the 18th and 19th centuries, the ballad genre, which goes back to the folk poetic tradition, becomes very widespread. The ballad was distinguished by its predilection for miracles, the terrible - that which is beyond the control of logic and reason - the predominance of the emotional beginning over the rational, the focus on the disclosure of feelings. For Zhukovsky, this genre becomes one of the main ones. Almost all of Zhukovsky's 39 ballads are translations. Zhukovsky was rightly called a translation genius. Zhukovsky's translated ballads give the impression of the original. Zhukovsky has 5 original ballads. All Zhukovsky's ballads are a single whole, they can be called an artistic cycle, they are united not only by genre, but also by semantic unity. They are sharply opposed to good and evil. Their source is always the human heart itself and the mysterious otherworldly forces that control the hearts. The romantic dual world appears in the ballads in the images of the devilish and divine principles. The idea of ​​dual worlds is imbued with elegies, ballads, and Zh.’s songs. Such ballads as “Lyudmila”, “Svetlana”, “Aeolian harp”, and others are famous.

Historical and literary significance of creativity.

Zhukovsky is one of the creators of the new Russian poetry. A poet with his own specific theme and intonation. In the artistic manner of Zhukovsky, lyricism, images of mental states predominate.

He played an exceptional role in developing the language of Russian poetry. Zhukovsky and his school gave the word many additional sounds and psychological colors. It is important that stylistic innovations entered Russian poetry and literature and remained its property.

Zhukovsky did not want and could not be a teacher in poetry. He was a lyricist who revealed his soul and did not claim the universal validity of his self-disclosures. Zhukovsky does not strive for everyone to be like him. Morality lies in the very right of the soul to self-disclosure, the primacy of feelings and moods, as the highest values ​​of freedom.

lyrics poetry romanticism fable

9. The origins of the cult of nature among the romantics. Analysis of the poem by V.A. Zhukovsky "Sea"

Like other romantics, Zhuk-go's landscape is always associated with the world of the lofty, unusual, sublime. The poet loves the elemental and mysterious in nature (night, sea, thunderstorm). In the sea, he is attracted by the enchanting silence and the abyss. The landscape in poetry, in literature in general, is always especially closely connected with the interior. the world and the unique image of the poet. Tolstoy is inseparable from the landscape of Jasn. glades, Dostoevsky-Petersburg (foggy, gloomy), Pushkin-landscape of Mikhailovsky and Trigorsky. Zhukovsky - Pavlovsk. Analysis. “I am enchanted” - LG is delighted with the sea, there is even a certain touch of magic here. The sea attracts him with its int. obscurity, unpredictability. A description that gives grounds for what kind of sea this is, no. Epithets and verbs personify the sea: “silent”, “azure”; “caress”, “beat”, “howl”, “lift”. The poet sees the sea as an emotional, spiritual element. The impression depends on the state of the soul. Vyazemsky said: “Zhuk has everything for the soul, everything for the soul.” The world is the soul. But here is presented not an image of the world, but an image of world experience. The beetle is fascinated by its own soul. If, for example, Lermontov's "abyss" is a direct meaning, then Zhukovsky's is a symbol. Many questions are always an attempt to understand the thinking. Being is devoid of breadth and space. The soul lives by striving to break out into a free existence. There is a kind of dual world, hesitation, uncertainty - this is far from all that is inside the author. The sea is a constant contact with the ideal. The presence of light is the life of the soul. The soul that fights for the ideal of life is in constant fear of losing this ideal. Everything is built on solid symbols. There are two melodies - the symphonic principle of organization. “A word can influence a person” Zhuk-y.

10. Development by V.A. Zhukovsky principles of suggestive poetics. Analysis of the poem "Unspeakable"

What is our earthly language before wondrous nature?

With what careless and easy freedom

She scattered beauty everywhere

And diversity agreed with unity!

But where, what brush depicted her?

Barely one of her traits

With effort, you can catch inspiration ...

But is it possible to transfer to the dead living?

Who could recreate creation in words?

Is the inexpressible subject to expression?

Holy sacraments, only the heart knows you.

Is it not often in the majestic hour

Evening land of transfiguration,

When the soul is full of confusion

Prophecy of the great vision

And carried away into the infinite,

A painful feeling in the chest

We want to keep the beautiful in flight,

We want to give a name to the unnamed -

And exhaustedly silent art?

What is visible to the eyes is this flame of clouds,

Flying across the quiet sky

This trembling of the shining waters,

These pictures of the shores

In the fire of a magnificent sunset -

These are such bright features -

They are easily caught by the winged thought,

And there are words for their brilliant beauty.

But what is merged with this brilliant beauty -

This is so vague, exciting us,

This listener with one soul

enticing voice,

This is a distant aspiration,

This past hello

(Like a sudden whiff of air

From the meadow of the motherland, where there was once a flower,

Holy youth, where hope lived),

This whispered memory

About sweet joyful and mournful antiquity,

This holy thing descending from on high,

This presence of the creator in creation --

What is their language?.. The soul flies with grief,

All the immensity in a single breath are crowded,

And only silence speaks clearly.

11. Reflection of the theory of duality in the poems of V.A. Zhukovsky "To Turgenev in response to his letter", "Spring feeling"

Belinsky also saw 2 trends in romanticism: 1 - “medieval. romanticism”, and, according to Bel-go, this is literature: “the world splits into two worlds - the despised here and the indefinite, mysterious there.” “There” is an ideal world, but it is unattainable: it is either in the past, or appears only in a dream, in fantasy, in dreams. The despised "here" is a modern reality where evil and injustice triumph. For such romanticism, the main interest is the description of the "inner world of the heart." Such was Zhukovsky's romanticism. 2world in Zh. is presented as a concept of 2 worlds, presented in the form of oppositions: earth and sky, here and there. The earth in the lyrics F is a vale of suffering and people on earth are doomed to suffering. In heaven, life is like an opportunity for the realization of happiness. And the purpose of life is to prepare for eternal happiness. The world is connected with the idea of ​​the immortality of the soul. The philosophic dual world is expressed in many verses by J. They are united by the fact that true bliss is revealed only after the death of the body. Romanticism declares the earthly world a world of genuine suffering, and on earth, at some moments, the veil of heavenly life that awaits him ahead is slightly opened. This is the "wonderful moment". So, in the message “To Turgenev, in response to his letter”, Zhukovsky, recalling the era of the Friendly Literary Society, when friends full of bright hopes “shared life in the bosom of Freedom”, states the collapse of the “charming fantasy world”, collided with life. The sharply condemning voice of the poet is heard in the words about the "vile light."

Also, the message "Turgenev in response ..." this appeal to a friend - Alexander Turgenev - includes memories of the past, grief from the irreplaceable losses (the death of Andrei Turgenev, the loss of hope, freedom). In the poem “Spring Feeling”, the theory of duality is revealed by the fact that the main character (in this case, the author himself) is trying to find out from the wind the questions of interest to him, namely, what is there beyond the distant lands? Also, the author is trying to find out if he can get to this place? from this we can conclude that the protagonist is dissatisfied with his former place, because he would not look for the so desired Enchanted there.

12. Comparative analysis of "Bacchae" by S. Batyushkov and "Songs" (1811) by V.A. Zhukovsky. (On the question of the creative individuality of poets belonging to the same direction)

Zhuk-iy considered Karamzin, the head of Russian sentime-zma, to be his teacher in poetry. The essence of Zhuk-go's romanticism is very accurately described by Belinsky, who said that he became "the singer of the heart of the morning." By nature, Zhuk-y was not a fighter, his "complaints" never developed into an open protest. He moved away from the current question, idealized it, thought about it with sadness. Zhukovsky's "Song" is clear, musical, filled with a poet-imnast and deep sadness about bygone days. Main the theme is the depiction of not visible phenomena, but the expression of elusive experiences. LG Beetle-go-person-to deep feelings of sorrowful, gone from action into his inner. world, into your memories and dreams. He constantly goes into the past: “The charm of the past days, Why did you resurrect again?” The poet is dissolved in nature and does not oppose the world, does not realize life as a whole as something hostile to his soul. Beetle, having looked into the world of mystery, hastens to recognize the charm of real life. The exclamation about a possible imminent death, which concludes the verse, does not threaten with melancholy. Dissolution, merging turns out to be the general law of the universe. As the rays of the sun melt in the evening twilight, merging with the fading nature, so a person fades away, and yet remains to live in memories. In the lyrics of Zhuk-go, we almost do not find the depiction of the physical features of the poet's beloved; in general, “shadows” often act here, devoid of “flesh” and symbolizing the spiritual union “beyond the grave”. But Bat-ov, on the contrary, first of all, wants to reproduce the external attractiveness of his “goddesses of beauty”, the captivatingness of their feminine charm, so in the poem “Volkhonka” the image of a young nymph, full of irresistible charm, arises. The lyrics of Bat-va became an expression of a concrete experience of a personality in its complexity, in its versatility, in its shades. V. G. Belinsky remarked: “The feeling that animates Batyushkov is always organically vital.” Bat-wa's poetry was an expression of the new. Defending the right of a person to the joys of life, to earthly happiness, Bat-in the Beetle came closer in his poetry to reality. This affected his artistic style. Belinsky compares Bat-va's poetry with the claim of sculpture: "There is a lot of plasticity in his poems, a lot of sculpture, so to speak." The verse "Bacchae" confirms this. In the artistic language of Bat-va, the world of real action, reflected by poetic consciousness, and the world created by the imagination of a romantic interact. The Bat-wa style lacks that direct correlation of the word with the subject and that closeness to living colloquial speech, which distinguish the realistic style. So, in the verse and "Bacchante" Bat-v does not avoid the metaphorical expressions characteristic of the Romantic style: "... the flaming cheeks of the rose are bright crimson." The romantically poeticized image of the Bacchante encourages the author to use traditional Slavonicisms. Main the theme of the verse-and-theme of love - "ardent delights" and "rapture" of earthly passion; this shows that he is still a life-loving poet.

13. The main stages and motives of K.N. Batyushkov. Analysis of the poet's poem (at the student's choice)

Batyushkov took shape as a poet in the first decade of the 19th century. During these years, the disintegration of the feudal-serf economy and the development of progressive bourgeois relations took place. The pathos of enlightenment brightly colored the philosophical and social views of the pre-war Batyushkov.

Batyushkov was brought up on the poetry of the predecessors of Karamzinism. He gave high marks to poets who expressed the inner world of the individual in their work. But he did not accept sugary and tearful sentimentality. Thus, directly opposite influences crossed in the subsoil of Batyushkov's poetry, which determined the inconsistency of Batyushkov's lyrics.

Konstantin Nikolaevich Batyushkov, together with Zhukovsky, was referred to as representatives of the "New School" in Russian poetry (according to the article "Experiments" by Uvarov).

Two periods can be distinguished in the poet's work: the 1st period 1802-1812 (pre-war), the 2nd period 1812-1821 (post-war).

1) The first period.

The most important feature of B.'s pre-war poetry was love for the "earthly world," "for worldly pleasures," for the visible and resonant beauty of life. There is an image of a carefree poet-lover of life, a poet of joy.

The central image of B.'s lyrics arose on the basis of the poet's acute conflict with reality and against the views that prevailed at the top of Alexander's Russia. Batyushkov does not agree with the idea that a wealthy person should be respected by everyone. Most often he is an indifferent member of society.

B. characterized his lyrics as a diary, reflecting the "external" and "internal" biography of the poet. "The eccentric poet" - the lyrical hero of Batyushkov. He refuses to chase the "ghosts of glory", rejects wealth. One of his essential features is the ability to dream. The dream for B. is "a direct part of happiness", a sorceress, "bringing her priceless gifts." The cult of dreams is one of the well-established motives of B.'s lyrics, anticipating the aesthetic theory of the romantics.

The theme of friendship occupies a prominent place in B.'s lyrics. The lyrical hero - a cheerful and carefree poet - sees in his friends witnesses of the facts of his biography, listeners of the story of his life, about his joys and sorrows.

Poetry of love. B. interprets love as a passion that captures and subjugates the whole person. ("Bacchante").

2) The second period.

The beginning of the Patriotic War of 1812 became the frontier that opened the second period of B.

...

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The 19th century as a cultural epoch begins in the calendar 18th century with the events of the Great French Revolution of 1789-1793. This was the first bourgeois revolution on a world scale (the previous bourgeois revolutions of the 17th century in Holland and England had a limited, national significance). The French Revolution marks the final fall of feudalism and the triumph of the bourgeois system in Europe, and all aspects of life with which the bourgeoisie comes into contact tend to accelerate, intensify, begin to live according to the laws of the market.

The 19th century is an era of political upheaval that redraws the map of Europe. In socio-political development, France stood at the forefront of the historical process. The Napoleonic wars of 1796-1815, and the attempt to restore absolutism (1815-1830), and a series of subsequent revolutions (1830, 1848, 1871) should be considered as consequences of the French Revolution.

The leading world power of the 19th century was England, where the early bourgeois revolution, urbanization and industrialization led to the rise of the British Empire and domination of the world market. Profound changes took place in the social structure of English society: the peasant class disappeared, there was a sharp polarization of the rich and the poor, accompanied by mass demonstrations of workers (1811-1812 - the movement of the destroyers of machine tools, the Luddites; 1819 - the execution of a demonstration of workers on St. Peter's Field near Manchester , which went down in history as the "Battle of Peterloo"; the Chartist movement in 1830-1840). Under the pressure of these events, the ruling classes made certain concessions (two parliamentary reforms - 1832 and 1867, the reform of the education system - 1870).

Germany in the 19th century painfully and belatedly solved the problem of creating a single national state. Having met the new century in a state of feudal fragmentation, after the Napoleonic wars, Germany turned from a conglomerate of 380 dwarf states into a union of 37 independent states at first, and after the half-hearted bourgeois revolution of 1848, Chancellor Otto von Bismarck set out to create a united Germany "with iron and blood." The unified German state was proclaimed in 1871 and became the youngest and most aggressive of the bourgeois states of Western Europe.

The United States of America during the XIX century mastered the vast expanses of North America, and as the territory increased, so did the industrial potential of the young American nation.

In 19th century literature two main directions - romanticism and realism. The Romantic era begins in the nineties of the eighteenth century and covers the entire first half of the century. However, the main elements of romantic culture were fully defined and revealed the possibilities of potential development by 1830. Romanticism is an art born from a brief historical moment of uncertainty, a crisis that accompanied the transition from the feudal system to the capitalist system; when by 1830 the outlines of capitalist society were determined, romanticism was replaced by the art of realism. The literature of realism at first was the literature of singles, and the term "realism" itself appeared only in the fifties of the XIX century. In the mass public consciousness, romanticism continued to remain contemporary art, in fact, it had already exhausted its possibilities, therefore, in literature after 1830, romanticism and realism interact in a complex way, in different national literatures generating an infinite variety of phenomena that cannot be unambiguously classified. In fact, romanticism does not die throughout the nineteenth century: a straight line leads from the romantics of the beginning of the century through late romanticism to symbolism, decadence and neo-romanticism of the end of the century. Let's take a look at both literary and artistic systems of the 19th century using the examples of their most prominent authors and works.

XIX century - the century of the addition of world literature when contacts between individual national literatures are accelerated and intensified. Thus, Russian literature of the 19th century had a keen interest in the works of Byron and Goethe, Heine and Hugo, Balzac and Dickens. Many of their images and motifs directly echo in the Russian literary classics, so the choice of works for considering the problems of foreign literature of the 19th century is dictated here, firstly, by the impossibility, within the framework of a short course, to give proper coverage of various situations in different national literatures and, secondly, by the degree of popularity and significance of individual authors for Russia.

Literature

1. Foreign literature of the 19th century. Realism: Reader. M., 1990.
2. Morois A. Prometheus, or the Life of Balzac. M., 1978.
3. Reizov B. G. Stendhal. Artistic creativity. L., 1978.
4. Reizov B. G. Flaubert's work. L., 1955.
5. Mystery of Charles Dickens. M., 1990.

Read also other topics of the chapter "Literature of the 19th century".

The 19th century is called the "Golden Age" of Russian poetry and the century of Russian literature on a global scale. It should not be forgotten that the literary leap that took place in the 19th century was prepared by the entire course of the literary process of the 17th and 18th centuries. The 19th century is the time of the formation of the Russian literary language, which took shape largely thanks to A.S. Pushkin.

But the 19th century began with the heyday of sentimentalism and the formation of romanticism. These literary trends found expression primarily in poetry. Poetic works of poets E.A. Baratynsky, K.N. Batyushkova, V.A. Zhukovsky, A.A. Feta, D.V. Davydova, N.M. Yazykov. Creativity F.I. Tyutchev's "Golden Age" of Russian poetry was completed. However, the central figure of this time was Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin.

A.S. Pushkin began his ascent to the literary Olympus with the poem "Ruslan and Lyudmila" in 1920. And his novel in verse "Eugene Onegin" was called an encyclopedia of Russian life. Romantic poems by A.S. Pushkin's "The Bronze Horseman" (1833), "The Fountain of Bakhchisaray", "Gypsies" opened the era of Russian romanticism. Many poets and writers considered A. S. Pushkin their teacher and continued the traditions of creating literary works laid down by him. One of these poets was M.Yu. Lermontov. His romantic poem "Mtsyri", the poetic story "Demon", many romantic poems are known. Interestingly, Russian poetry of the 19th century was closely connected with the social and political life of the country. Poets tried to comprehend the idea of ​​their special purpose. The poet in Russia was considered a conductor of divine truth, a prophet. The poets urged the authorities to listen to their words. Vivid examples of understanding the role of the poet and influence on the political life of the country are the poems of A.S. Pushkin "Prophet", ode "Liberty", "The Poet and the Crowd", a poem by M.Yu. Lermontov "On the Death of a Poet" and many others.

Along with poetry, prose began to develop. The prose writers of the beginning of the century were influenced by the English historical novels of W. Scott, whose translations were very popular. The development of Russian prose of the 19th century began with the prose works of A.S. Pushkin and N.V. Gogol. Pushkin, under the influence of English historical novels, creates the story "The Captain's Daughter", where the action takes place against the backdrop of grandiose historical events: during the Pugachev rebellion. A.S. Pushkin did a tremendous job exploring this historical period. This work was largely political in nature and was directed to those in power.

A.S. Pushkin and N.V. Gogol identified the main artistic types that would be developed by writers throughout the 19th century. This is the artistic type of the “superfluous person”, an example of which is Eugene Onegin in the novel by A.S. Pushkin, and the so-called type of "little man", which is shown by N.V. Gogol in his story "The Overcoat", as well as A.S. Pushkin in the story "The Stationmaster".
Literature inherited its publicism and satirical character from the 18th century. In the prose poem N.V. Gogol's "Dead Souls", the writer in a sharp satirical manner shows a swindler who buys up dead souls, various types of landlords who are the embodiment of various human vices (the influence of classicism affects). In the same plan, the comedy "The Inspector General" is sustained. The works of A. S. Pushkin are also full of satirical images. Literature continues to satirically depict Russian reality. The tendency to depict the vices and shortcomings of Russian society is a characteristic feature of all Russian classical literature. It can be traced in the works of almost all writers of the 19th century. At the same time, many writers implement the satirical trend in a grotesque form. Examples of grotesque satire are the works of N.V. Gogol "The Nose", M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin "Gentlemen Golovlevs", "History of one city".

Since the middle of the 19th century, the formation of Russian realistic literature has been taking place, which is being created against the backdrop of a tense socio-political situation that developed in Russia during the reign of Nicholas I. A crisis in the serf system is brewing, contradictions between the authorities and the common people are strong. There is a need to create a realistic literature that sharply reacts to the socio-political situation in the country. Literary critic V.G. Belinsky marks a new realistic trend in literature. His position is being developed by N.A. Dobrolyubov, N.G. Chernyshevsky. A dispute arises between Westernizers and Slavophiles about the paths of Russia's historical development.

Writers turn to the socio-political problems of Russian reality. The genre of the realistic novel is developing. Their works are created by I.S. Turgenev, F.M. Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy, I.A. Goncharov. Socio-political and philosophical problems prevail. Literature is distinguished by a special psychologism.

The development of poetry somewhat subsides. It is worth noting the poetic works of Nekrasov, who was the first to introduce social issues into poetry. Known for his poem “Who in Rus' to live well? ”, as well as many poems, where the hard and hopeless life of the people is comprehended.

The literary process of the late 19th century discovered the names of N. S. Leskov, A.N. Ostrovsky A.P. Chekhov. The latter proved to be a master of a small literary genre - a story, as well as an excellent playwright. Competitor A.P. Chekhov was Maxim Gorky.

The end of the 19th century was marked by the formation of pre-revolutionary sentiments. The realist tradition was beginning to fade. It was replaced by the so-called decadent literature, the hallmarks of which were mysticism, religiosity, as well as a premonition of changes in the socio-political life of the country. Subsequently, decadence grew into symbolism. This opens a new page in the history of Russian literature.

In the second half of the 19th - early 20th century, many works of spiritual culture were created in Russia, which not only became the most important phenomena of world universal culture, but which influenced the entire subsequent world culture and even the socio-political movements of the 20th century. It is no coincidence that the heading of this section refers to literature and philosophy. Many outstanding cultural figures of Russia formulated philosophical ideas that spread throughout the world in literary works of art. First of all, what has been said refers to the work of the brilliant thinkers and artists F.M. Dostoevsky and L.N. Tolstoy.

Only one famous novel by Dostoevsky "Crime and Punishment" is worth several philosophical directions in its conceptual richness. The central idea of ​​this novel and other works of the great writer is to emphasize the value and spiritual wealth of each individual, each person, regardless of his social status, talents, abilities. Dostoevsky's principle - "every person is the Universe." This is one of the highest manifestations of humanism and one of the first manifestations in Russia of the principle of priority. rights person.

It should be noted that this idea largely corresponds to the ideas of the great predecessors of Dostoevsky A.S. Pushkin and N.V. Gogol, which is confirmed by the famous statement ……. about Russian literature: “We all came out of Gogol's Overcoat. The famous Gogol's "Overcoat" was dedicated to protecting the human dignity of the common man. In the novel "Crime and Punishment" Dostoevsky showed the richness of the spiritual world, the complexity of the experiences of people from the lowest social strata. It can be recalled that the most positive image in this novel (and in all of Dostoevsky's work) is the image of Sonya Marmeladova, a girl who is forced to be a prostitute in order to feed her father, stepmother and little brothers. In the same novel, Dostoevsky, through the mouth of his hero Razumikhin, perspicaciously showed the danger and anti-humanistic orientation of socialist ideas: "It began with the view of the socialists. The view is known: crime is a protest against the abnormality of the social structure - and nothing more, and no reasons are allowed anymore - and nothing!

In his other famous novel, Demons, Dostoevsky gave a convincing artistic portrait of such a dangerous phenomenon as terrorism. Dostoevsky showed the world of terrorists from the inside, showed that even those people who come to terror because of bright ideals inevitably begin to serve evil, anti-humanism. Dostoevsky's work was reflected not only in the ideas of his literary predecessors, but also in his personal life, since Dostoevsky himself was fond of socialist revolutionary ideas in his youth, as a result of which he spent several years in hard labor and in exile. Therefore, Dostoevsky better than others understood the motives and spiritual impulses of people who broke the law, based on a variety of motives. It is no coincidence that the greatest philosopher of the 19th century, Friedrich Nietzsche, who influenced many philosophers, once said: "The only psychologist from whom I learned something is Dostoevsky."

It should be noted that Dostoevsky early raised that important problem, which later glorified precisely F. Nietzsche, the problem of the superman that is, a person who considers it permissible for himself to violate the generally accepted morality for reasons of higher goals and ideals. The problem of the superman became very significant in the 20th century, especially in connection with the spread of fascism and terrorism. It is no coincidence that the Italian thinker and politician Antonio Gramsci, who tried to find the origins of the idea of ​​the superman in fascism, dealt with this problem for a long time, even while in prison.

Gramsci showed that the idea of ​​the superman arises in European culture as early as the beginning of the 19th century. Already the hero of Goethe's great poem "Faust" is called a superman - ubermensch. According to Gramsci, a typical image of the superman is given by the French writer A. Dumas in the images of his heroes Athos in the novel The Three Musketeers and the Count of Monte Cristo in the novel of the same name. These two people are talented and strong-willed, smart and energetic, they carry out reprisals against objectionable people, taking on the functions of supreme judges, and sometimes even executioners.

Nietzsche devoted several of his later works to the problem of the superman. In these works, the question of the right of the superman to rise above morality remains open. Dostoevsky, however, raised and solved the problem of the superman long before Nietzsche in his novel Crime and Punishment. The hero of the novel, Raskolnikov, asks himself whether he has the right to commit a crime, the murder of a stingy old woman, a pawnbroker, in order to then do good. Dostoevsky in the novel convincingly shows that such a path leads only to the moral devastation of a person and it is impossible to build good on crime. It is noteworthy that the repentant Raskolnikov comes to understand the greatness of simple and long-known humanistic Christian ideas. And the main thing in these ideas is the exaltation of morality and humane attitude towards every person, regardless of his position and abilities. It is no coincidence that the great Russian philosopher N. Berdyaev will say that human rights are, in essence, a Christian idea. Dostoevsky leads the reader to this thought in an artistic way. Dostoevsky debunks the idea of ​​the superman with artistic devices. It is no coincidence that Dostoevsky was extremely appreciated by great scientists, great philosophers, writers, filmmakers. It is no coincidence that Dostoevsky is sometimes called one of the forerunners of the leading philosophical direction of the 20th century, existentialism, the direction that studies the problem of the meaning of human life.

An equally outstanding role in world literature was played by Dostoevsky's contemporary L.N. Tolstoy, who, using other artistic techniques compared to Dostoevsky, with all his work contributed to the spread of humanistic ideals in society. Tolstoy depicted seemingly typical everyday situations, typical characters and images, did not try to embellish his heroes, did not put moralizing speeches or indignant guises into the mouths of his characters. But the general construction of Tolstoy's works made us perceive all these events, images, characters through the prism of Tolstoy's humanistic worldview. Thus, while reading Tolstoy's novels, a person also absorbs a humanistic view of the real world, a humane attitude towards real people. Tolstoy's genius also lies in the fact that at the same time he captivates the reader with his narrative, causing aesthetic interest in the work.

Leo Tolstoy is still famous and respected both in Russia and abroad. But his fame in his homeland is connected mainly and almost exclusively with the novels of the writer. And outside of Russia, the glory of Tolstoy the philosopher sometimes even surpassed the glory of Tolstoy the artist. It should be noted that Tolstoy's philosophy is not limited to the philosophical content of his novels. Tolstoy's philosophical ideas, his understanding of the meaning of life, his understanding of social and moral problems, were clearly and consistently formulated in journalistic articles and scientific treatises. It is this part of Tolstoy's creative heritage that was the least fortunate in Russia. The moral, social, religious and philosophical teachings of Tolstoy were met with hostility by officials during the author's lifetime, some of his articles were published only abroad.

After 1917, the attitude towards Tolstoy's ideas became much worse, especially after the establishment of the dictatorship of Lenin's party in Russia. Unfortunately, Lenin at one time showed a special interest in Tolstoy's teachings, and on the whole Lenin did not like it. Lenin considered it reactionary, ideologically incompatible with Marxism, with all the ensuing consequences. It just so happened that the father of the Indian nation, Mahatma Gandhi, considered himself a student of Leo Tolstoy and was proud of it, and in Tolstoy's homeland this circumstance was hushed up for a long time. This silence is quite understandable, the ideas of Tolstoy and Mahatma Gandhi were absolutely incompatible with the ideas of class struggle and revolutionary violence, so sweet to the heart and mind of communist ideologists.

Leo Tolstoy came to the main ideas of his teaching already in adulthood. In his autobiographical "Confession" (1881), Tolstoy wrote that at about the age of fifty, a reassessment of values ​​took place in him, a rethinking of his entire previous life. An internal search for the meaning of life began. Tolstoy studied many philosophical works, a lot of religious texts. Moreover, this study was systematic and consistent. For a while, for example, Tolstoy was so carried away by the philosophical pessimism of A. Schopenhauer that he even translated individual works of the German philosopher. But in the end, based on the analysis of many philosophical and religious concepts, Tolstoy created his own doctrine, the main ideas of which were formulated in the works “What is my faith” (1888), “Thou shalt not kill” (1900), “I cannot be silent” (1908), “An answer to the definition of the synod” (1901). Within the framework of this study guide, the following provisions of Tolstoy's teachings can be distinguished:

1. The moral content of all modern religions is the same, that is, all religious teachings that were widespread in the 20th century call for the same norms of moral behavior. These moral norms are expressed in different ways: in commandments, parables, stories about the life of the founders of religions, in their instructions, but Confucius, and Buddha, and Moses, and Christ, and Mohammed taught people high moral behavior. Therefore, given the significant role played by the religions founded by these spiritual mentors of mankind, we can say that the world has a reliable basis for mutual understanding and cooperation of people of all nations. It is no coincidence that Lev Nikolayevich was very interested in attempts to create new religious teachings based on the idea of ​​the kinship of all existing religions. And at the end of the 19th century, Ramakrishna and Vivekananda preached a unifying religion in India, and Baha'u'llah created the Baha'i religion in Iran. It is important to note that in his study of previous teachings, Tolstoy was not limited only to the teachings of Europe, but also got acquainted with all the philosophical and religious texts of the East translated into European languages. That is, Tolstoy's ideas are based on a very broad cultural and historical foundation. It is no coincidence, therefore, that subsequently Tolstoy's ideas were perceived with equally great interest both in Europe and in Asia, as well as in the United States of America.

2. If religions are essentially talking about the same thing, why do people of different faiths often quarrel with each other? This happens, according to Tolstoy, due to the fact that in the modern world for the majority of believers, it is not the moral norms of religions that come to the fore, but ritual ones. Indeed, for the majority of believers, being a religious person means observing rituals, not moral precepts. It is easier to perform some kind of prayer ritual or even fast for a while than to eradicate envy, anger in yourself or turn your right cheek after a blow to your left. But the main thing is not what is easier, but what is more difficult to comply with. The fact is that there is a large stratum of people who are directly interested in the fact that believers pay the main attention to rituals, and not to the moral content of religion. Unfortunately, these people are usually priests. After all, their entire existence is connected with the maintenance of rituals, including even their material well-being. That is, due to their position, many priests are forced to draw the attention of believers to the ritual side of religion, and not to the moral side. Tolstoy wrote in his writings that many of the rites of Christianity cannot be found in the Gospels, but it is these rites that are strictly observed. According to Tolstoy, many rituals even contradict the teachings of Christ, but the priests do not pay attention to this and demand the performance of rituals, and not a highly moral life. Since it is ritual that is important for believers, and the rites of different religions differ, it is the difference in rites that leads to human misunderstanding, enmity, and even murder. The following, according to Tolstoy, natural conclusion suggests itself: to abandon rituals and live in accordance with the moral standards of these religions, that is, to see in religion, first of all, a moral system, and not a ritual one.

But what is left for the clergy to do in this case? The reaction of most of them to Tolstoy's ideas was predictable and natural. Tolstoy was excommunicated, despite the writer's conviction that he was acting in strict accordance with the commandments of Christ. True, in the text of the excommunication of L. Tolstoy from the church, compiled by representatives of the Holy Synod, the reason for the excommunication was the non-canonical attitude of L. Tolstoy to the image of the Holy Spirit. They did not dare to challenge Tolstoy's view of the immorality of the exaltation of rites in the hierarchy of the Orthodox Church.

3. Tolstoy's teachings are best known for the idea nonviolent resistance to evil. True, in the literature about Tolstoy, the phrase “non-resistance to evil by violence” was more often used, but in this case, as a rule, the emphasis was on the first words - “non-resistance to evil”, which distorted Tolstoy's ideas. And it was about resistance to evil, but resistance without the use of violence. Tolstoy believed that it was necessary to defend the Good, but not by any means. Different people may have different ideas about the Good, their own ideas about how to solve certain social problems, but any attempt to achieve the triumph of Good with the use of violence will end in the triumph of evil. The use of violence - whether physical or mental - will certainly cause a feeling of hatred in the enemy, and where hatred reigns, there is no place for Good.

It does not follow from this that people should give up the fight against evil, not at all. But it is necessary to fight only by non-violent means, refusing to commit immoral acts, even if the refusal would threaten the well-being or even life of a person. In fact, in the doctrine of non-violent resistance to evil, Tolstoy created a new concept of heroism, a new understanding of courage: the greatness of a person is not in striking back, but in not responding to a blow, even having strength to do so. Thanks to such an act, a moral person will not spread the chain of violence, moreover, the person who hit him may think or even be ashamed of his act, and this is already the path to his moral cure. Such a concept of heroism bridges the gap between the moral norms of religions and popular notions of heroism. For example, the advice of Jesus Christ to turn the cheek for a blow is difficult to reconcile with ideas of heroism, traditional even for people who profess Christianity. Tolstoy's teaching eliminated this contradiction.

This doctrine may seem completely utopian, that is, not realizable in practice. But it's not. Tolstoy created a new ideal of moral behavior to which people should aspire. Not everyone can follow this path, but few follow the path of traditional heroism. Few are capable of self-sacrifice in combat, just as few are capable of giving their lives on the path of non-violent resistance. The main difference between these concepts is not in their realism, but in the ideals to which people should strive. The ideal put forward by Tolstoy helps to reduce cruelty and aggressiveness in society, teaches people compassion, mutual understanding and love.

That the doctrine of non-violent resistance was not a pure utopia was demonstrated by Mahatma Gandhi, who was able to convince Indians to seek independence through non-violent means. And independence was achieved without any national liberation war. The concept of nonviolence was created by Tolstoy on the basis of an analysis of the political life of Russia in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Tolstoy witnessed the armed struggle waged between the Russian government and revolutionary terrorists. The great humanist urged both sides to stop, convinced them that, answering each other blow for blow, both sides increase the amount of hatred and aggressiveness in Russia. All this will inevitably lead to terrible social upheavals, in which neither the goals of the government nor the goals of the revolutionaries will be achieved. Tolstoy's predictions were confirmed very soon.

The dissemination of the humanistic ideas of Lev Nikolayevich is extremely important for today. His ideas were formulated as a result of generalizing the spiritual experience of the peoples of Europe and Asia, as a result of studying various religions and moral systems. Even during Tolstoy's lifetime, representatives of various peoples and religions accepted Tolstoy's teachings with gratitude. The dissemination of this teaching will help reduce the existing mistrust between peoples, help reduce aggressiveness and fanaticism in society.

The world significance of Russian philosophy was not associated only with the work of great Russian writers.

Vladimir Sergeevich Solovyov occupies a special place in the history of Russian philosophy. Many researchers of Russian philosophy, for example, N. Lossky, who in his “History. Russian Philosophy” (1948) stated that “it was Solovyov who was the creator of the original Russian system of philosophy and laid the foundations of a whole school of Russian religious and philosophical thought, which still continues to live and develop.” Lossky's book was first published in 1951, but the influence of Vl. Solovyov has not decreased recently, but rather, on the contrary, has sharply increased. This is due to the fact that only in the late 80's. 20th century V. S. Solovyov’s books began to be published in his homeland after a long break. The fact is that the ruling Communist Party forbade the publication of the works of the great Russian philosopher in Russia. And the quantity and volume written by Vl. Solovyov is amazing, just like the originality of his ideas and the variety of genres in which the philosopher worked. These are strict, systematized scientific treatises, and humorous poems, and sharp journal publications on political topics that were relevant at that time, and concise articles for the encyclopedic dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron. At the same time, everything written by Solovyov is marked with the stamp of a creative genius, but even this is not the main thing, the best in Solovyov's work. The main thing is that all his work is imbued with a special moral spirit, love for man and humanity.

Evidence of the moral content of Solovyov's work can even serve as the titles of some of his works - "The Justification of Good as Truth", "The Meaning of Love", this is also evidenced by the basic concept of Solovyov's philosophical system - Godmanhood . According to Solovyov, God-manhood is the goal of history, this is the state to which all mankind is gradually approaching. This is a state in which not a few, and not even thousands, not millions, but all people will be guided in their actions only by humane, highly moral motives that are given to man by God. This state is the universal triumph of morality. Solovyov believed in the optimistic finale of human history and not only believed, but also acted, tried to bring the state of God-manhood closer, with his books and articles.

His whole enormous work “Justification of Good” is a titanic attempt to prove the necessity of good, to convince that doing good is the most reasonable, even the most profitable way for a person. In his book, Solovyov analyzed a huge number of religious, mythological, scientific ideas, compared them with each other, traced the fate of various moral principles in the history of various peoples. And all this in order to substantiate goodness as the highest and inevitable principle of human activity. According to Solovyov, it is not enough to believe in the greatness of good, this greatness can be proved with the help of philosophical research. Such a study is the "Justification of the Good as Truth."

It must be said that Solovyov's last works, for example, "Three Conversations" (1899), are distinguished by pessimism not characteristic of Solovyov, a premonition of the tragic end of human history. Pessimism was most likely associated with the Yihetuan movement in China that began during Solovyov's lifetime. It was a powerful protest of those Chinese who were dissatisfied with China's departure from the policy of isolationism, were dissatisfied with the departure from the most absurd traditions and customs, which began at that time in China, the process of approaching global achievements in technology and economics. Zealots of antiquity, based on patriotic and religious motives, began to smash everything foreign and even kill foreigners. Solovyov took these events as a collapse of hopes for the gradual unification of people on the basis of common morality. But already after the death of Solovyov, the isolationist movement was crushed by the Chinese government (not without the help of foreign forces), and since then China has been so rapidly drawn into the orbit of world politics that, after 50 years, ideas of European origin began to be planted everywhere there.

One should not think that V. Solovyov was a classic armchair scientist who limited himself to creating works on beautiful topics, but far from the practical concerns of most people. Solovyov was keenly interested in contemporary political events and social problems. Not surprisingly, he published many articles on national problems in Russia, in particular, he paid much attention to the growing anti-Semitism in Russia. Solovyov, in his articles on the Jewish question, argued that anti-Semitism, a negative attitude towards Jews, is a deeply unrighteous phenomenon from the point of view of morality and Christian virtues. He showed that anti-Semitism is associated with ignorance, instincts, envy. Solovyov's journalistic articles aroused great interest and influenced public opinion, which was largely facilitated by the literary skill of the philosopher, who was able to express even the most profound and original ideas in a bright and clear manner.

Thanks to his journalistic activity, Solovyov was well known even outside of academic circles. And here it should be noted that Solovyov not only wrote about humanism and morality, not only urged others to live according to the laws of goodness, but he himself lived in accordance with the best moral principles. Solovyov never had his own housing, he lived with friends and relatives. Near the house where he once again settled, as a rule, many beggars began to gather, asking for alms. Solovyov always gave a lot to such petitioners, and they quickly caught on to this “pattern”. These generous alms were explained not by merchant manners, not by the search for popularity, but by the feeling of guilt that Solovyov felt, considering himself guilty for the difference in position, in prosperity, which was between the beggars and people of his circle. This feeling of guilt did not allow Solovyov to make a fortune, start a house, and achieve personal material well-being.

It is impossible to doubt the sincerity of the moral convictions of the creator of the first Russian philosophical system. People who personally knew Solovyov and read his philosophical treatises and followed his articles in magazines had no doubts about this. Vladimir Solovyov lived, unfortunately, not for long, only 47 years. After Solovyov's death in 1900, he was buried in Orthodox churches, prayed for in synagogues, Catholic priests and Muslims mourned him. Universal grief was understandable, because a man died who wanted the unity of all peoples, all people in God-manhood, the unity of all people on the basis of the highest moral principles.

Russia continued to give the whole world great writers and philosophers who throughout the 20th century contributed to the humanization of mankind. In 1948, the UN General Assembly adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. The Declaration, consisting of 30 articles and a preamble, expresses the social ideals that mankind has come to in the course of its long history, it has come by trial and error, at the cost of millions of victims and tragic delusions. The Declaration includes all the best of the most diverse philosophical teachings and social theories. The Declaration of Human Rights is not just another set of slogans. On the basis of the Declaration, international pacts have been developed, and countries that have acceded to these pacts are obliged to comply with the principles of the Declaration of Human Rights. The Declaration was created after the Second World War, after the defeat of fascism, or rather, after the defeat of the first attempt of fascism to establish itself on Earth. But other similar attempts are possible. The Declaration of 1948 consolidates such principles of social structure that do not allow fascism or other dictatorship to seize power, first in one country, and then throughout the world.

The initial principle of the Declaration is the principle of protecting the rights and interests of an individual. The rights and freedoms of every person, every individual are higher and more valuable than the interests of classes, estates, nations, states, religious communities. This principle is fully consistent with the philosophical ideas of Berdyaev. The coincidence is not accidental. A year before the UN adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the University of Cambridge awarded Berdyaev an honorary doctorate in theology. Along with Berdyaev, the greatest philosophers of Europe K. Barthes and J. Maritain claimed this title, but Berdyaev was given preference as a thinker who most fully and accurately expressed the humanistic ideals of mankind. Berdyaev did this in his philosophical articles and books, and at the time Berdyaev was awarded an honorary title in 1947, a legal form for expressing these ideas was being developed - the Declaration of the Rights of Man, which was probably created with the participation of graduates of the same Cambridge University. Therefore, Berdyaev can be called a philosopher, one of the first to express world-humanistic social ideals.

Berdyaev's ideas did not arise suddenly; he relied on the entire humanistic culture of mankind. At the same time - and this is very important from the point of view of the world significance of Russian philosophy - Berdyaev continued the best traditions of Russian philosophy, Russian culture. The philosophical teaching of Berdyaev was undoubtedly influenced by the humanistic ideas of Vl. Solovyov, the doctrine of God-manhood, Solovyov's understanding of national and interreligious problems, Tolstoy's rejection of violence. Tolstoy's thoughts about the spiritual unity of all religions also correspond to the spirit of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.

However, Tolstoy's teaching on non-violent resistance to evil also had a more immediate significance for world culture. Suffice it to recall the activities of Mahatma Gandhi, who considered himself a student of Tolstoy and was called the father of the Indian nation. By the way, it is this example of the influence of Tolstoy's ideas that allows the author of this manual to be skeptical about the activities of Hare Krishnas and other conductors of Indian religious and philosophical ideas in Russia. Someone, but Gandhi knew the Vedas, and the Bhagavad Gita, and many other monuments of the great Indian culture, but, in the end, he turned for advice to a Russian thinker, however, one who tried to generalize the entire humanistic culture of mankind. Tolstoy's ideas also influenced Martin Luther King, a prominent public figure in the United States, who largely contributed to the peaceful resolution of racial conflicts in the United States in the 60s. Thus, Tolstoy's ideas had a huge impact not only on the views of other thinkers, but also on world history, primarily in England, India, and the USA. It is possible that if Tolstoy's ideas were to have great influence in Russia and Germany, the fate of these countries would not have turned out in such a tragic way.

Humanism, respect for the personality of each person, democratic principles and traditions inextricably linked with this respect can be found throughout the history of Russian culture. It is enough to cite Fedotov's ideas about the democratic basis of Russian culture, it is enough to recall the work of Andrei Rublev, Sergius of Radonezh, Nil Sorsky. This feature of Russian culture is very symbolically reflected by the great Pushkin in his poem "Monument". The poet, who best expressed the national culture that preceded him and largely determined the subsequent one, saw the meaning of his work and his existence in this way:

And for a long time I will be kind to the people,

That I aroused good feelings with lyre,

That in my cruel age I glorified freedom

And he called for mercy on the fallen.

In these lines - Andrey Rublev, and Nil Sorsky, and Vladimir Solovyov, and Tolstoy, and Berdyaev, and Fedotov. This actually dying poetic testament of the poet is all the more remarkable because Pushkin contrasted his “Monument” with the poem of the same name by G. Derzhavin. In Derzhavin's poem, the poet considered his main merit to be the glorification of the exploits of great people and military victories. Pushkin in his younger years, like Derzhavin, also sang of victories and called for a violent struggle against tyrants. But, wise in life, he considered that his work was higher than military victories, higher Alexandria pillar. Pushkin glorified freedom along with good feelings and mercy - and this is the main thing that he himself did and what Russian culture was destined to do.

Humanism and the universal significance of Russian philosophy are explained by the historical fate of Russia. In Russia, different cultures and religions met and coexisted for a long time. In the era of Kievan Rus, the fates of the Eastern Slavs and the Turkic peoples, the ancestors of the modern Bashkirs, Tatars, Kazakhs and many other peoples who adopted the Muslim religion, were closely intertwined. However, Russia did not know inter-religious wars. Western European philosophers were mainly focused on two areas of Christianity - Catholicism and Protestantism. Russian philosophers took into account the experience of these religious movements, but at the same time they were enriched by the experience of the Orthodox religion. Some Western philosophers showed interest in Buddhism, especially since the 19th century, but in Russia there lived entire peoples who professed Buddhism - Kalmyks, Buryats. Russia had a huge border with China, so that Chinese culture was not exotic for Russia. Thus, we can conclude that the great Russian philosophy of the 19th and 20th centuries synthesized the universal and humanistic experience of the thousand-year history and culture of Russia.

The 19th century is called the "Golden Age" of Russian poetry and the century of Russian literature on a global scale. It should not be forgotten that the literary leap that took place in the 19th century was prepared by the entire course of the literary process of the 17th and 18th centuries. The 19th century is the time of the formation of the Russian literary language, which took shape largely thanks to A.S. Pushkin.
But the 19th century began with the heyday of sentimentalism and the formation of romanticism. These literary trends found expression primarily in poetry. Poetic works of poets E.A. Baratynsky, K.N. Batyushkova, V.A. Zhukovsky, A.A. Feta, D.V. Davydova, N.M. Yazykov. Creativity F.I. Tyutchev's "Golden Age" of Russian poetry was completed. However, the central figure of this time was Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin.
A.S. Pushkin began his ascent to the literary Olympus with the poem "Ruslan and Lyudmila" in 1920. And his novel in verse "Eugene Onegin" was called an encyclopedia of Russian life. Romantic poems by A.S. Pushkin's "The Bronze Horseman" (1833), "The Fountain of Bakhchisaray", "Gypsies" opened the era of Russian romanticism. Many poets and writers considered A. S. Pushkin their teacher and continued the traditions of creating literary works laid down by him. One of these poets was M.Yu. Lermontov. His romantic poem "Mtsyri", the poetic story "Demon", many romantic poems are known. Interestingly, Russian poetry of the 19th century was closely connected with the social and political life of the country. Poets tried to comprehend the idea of ​​their special purpose. The poet in Russia was considered a conductor of divine truth, a prophet. The poets urged the authorities to listen to their words. Vivid examples of understanding the role of the poet and influence on the political life of the country are the poems of A.S. Pushkin "Prophet", ode "Liberty", "The Poet and the Crowd", a poem by M.Yu. Lermontov "On the Death of a Poet" and many others.
Along with poetry, prose began to develop. The prose writers of the beginning of the century were influenced by the English historical novels of W. Scott, whose translations were very popular. The development of Russian prose of the 19th century began with the prose works of A.S. Pushkin and N.V. Gogol. Pushkin, under the influence of English historical novels, creates the story "The Captain's Daughter", where the action takes place against the backdrop of grandiose historical events: during the Pugachev rebellion. A.S. Pushkin did a tremendous job exploring this historical period. This work was largely political in nature and was directed to those in power.
A.S. Pushkin and N.V. Gogol identified the main artistic types that would be developed by writers throughout the 19th century. This is the artistic type of the “superfluous person”, an example of which is Eugene Onegin in the novel by A.S. Pushkin, and the so-called type of "little man", which is shown by N.V. Gogol in his story "The Overcoat", as well as A.S. Pushkin in the story "The Stationmaster".
Literature inherited its publicism and satirical character from the 18th century. In the prose poem N.V. Gogol's "Dead Souls", the writer in a sharp satirical manner shows a swindler who buys up dead souls, various types of landlords who are the embodiment of various human vices (the influence of classicism affects). In the same plan, the comedy "The Inspector General" is sustained. The works of A. S. Pushkin are also full of satirical images. Literature continues to satirically depict Russian reality. The tendency to depict the vices and shortcomings of Russian society is a characteristic feature of all Russian classical literature. It can be traced in the works of almost all writers of the 19th century. At the same time, many writers implement the satirical trend in a grotesque form. Examples of grotesque satire are the works of N.V. Gogol "The Nose", M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin "Gentlemen Golovlevs", "History of one city".
Since the middle of the 19th century, the formation of Russian realistic literature has been taking place, which is being created against the background of the tense socio-political situation that developed in Russia during the reign of Nicholas I. A crisis in the serf system is brewing, and contradictions between the authorities and the common people are strong. There is a need to create a realistic literature that sharply reacts to the socio-political situation in the country. Literary critic V.G. Belinsky marks a new realistic trend in literature. His position is being developed by N.A. Dobrolyubov, N.G. Chernyshevsky. A dispute arises between Westernizers and Slavophiles about the paths of Russia's historical development.
Writers turn to the socio-political problems of Russian reality. The genre of the realistic novel is developing. Their works are created by I.S. Turgenev, F.M. Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy, I.A. Goncharov. Socio-political and philosophical problems prevail. Literature is distinguished by a special psychologism.
The development of poetry somewhat subsides. It is worth noting the poetic works of Nekrasov, who was the first to introduce social issues into poetry. His poem “Who is living well in Rus'?” is known, as well as many poems, where the hard and hopeless life of the people is comprehended.
The literary process of the late 19th century discovered the names of N. S. Leskov, A.N. Ostrovsky A.P. Chekhov. The latter proved to be a master of a small literary genre - a story, as well as an excellent playwright. Competitor A.P. Chekhov was Maxim Gorky.
The end of the 19th century was marked by the formation of pre-revolutionary sentiments. The realist tradition was beginning to fade. It was replaced by the so-called decadent literature, the hallmarks of which were mysticism, religiosity, as well as a premonition of changes in the socio-political life of the country. Subsequently, decadence grew into symbolism. This opens a new page in the history of Russian literature.